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BUILDING 
ND CARE 
THE BODY 

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MILLAN COMPANY 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF 
THE BODY 



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THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE BUILDING AND CARE 
OF THE BODY 



AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK IN 

PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY 

AND HYGIENE 



BY 



COLUMBUS N. MILLARD 

SUPERVISOR OF GRAMMAR GRADES BUFFALO PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
AUTHOR OF "THE WONDERFUL HOUSE THAT JACK HAS " 



THE MACMILLAIST COMPANY 
1910 

All rights reserved 



©t : 



Copyright, 1910, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published April, 1910. 



©CI.A261171 



NarbjooU $ress 

J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

Teaching pupils to develop strong, healthy bodies 
should be one of the chief aims of our schools. That 
unwise habits of eating and breathing are often the 
cause of weakening the body and sowing the seed of 
future ill health is a well-known fact. That daily 
habits as to cleanliness, exercise, rest, and protection 
of the body are also very important factors in gaining 
and preserving health and strength is an equally 
familiar truth. 

Habits in all these respects are formed early in life, 
and the longer incorrect ones are practiced, the more 
difficult it is to change them. Unfortunately, too, 
knowledge gained after the formation of incorrect 
bodily habits often effects few changes, unless chronic 
invalidism compels thereto. It naturally follows, 
then, that Physiology and Hygiene, the study in the 
school curriculum which especially has to do with 
the development and care of the body, should deal 
with topics that are vital to the formation of good 
health habits, and should present them in a way that 
will both interest and impress children. The state- 
ment that it is right or best to do or not to do certain 



vi PREFACE 

things often makes little or no lasting impression upon 
young folk. If they can be led to see, however, that 
certain practices are likely to make them better look- 
ing, abler in play and in work, and generally happier, 
more comfortable, and more useful, the information 
may be both retained and applied, for these benefits 
appeal to the child mind as well worth while. 

As the title of this book, "The Building and Care 
of the Body," suggests, it has been written to fulfill 
the above stated conditions. Its aim throughout is 
to influence children to form habits likely to result 
in the development of strong, healthy bodies. The 
fact that bodily weakness is attended by discomfort 
and handicap, and that vigorous health results in 
improved appearance, more enjoyment, higher effi- 
ciency, and greater usefulness, is strongly emphasized. 
That each individual child is largely responsible for 
the health and efficiency which he will enjoy in man- 
hood is also made prominent. In each chapter em- 
phasis is placed upon the points vital to health. For 
example, under foods and digestion, the value of the 
various foods to the body, and the importance of 
the wise selection of foods, thorough mastication, and 
the daily evacuation of the waste products of diges- 
tion, are among the topics made especially prominent. 
Under respiration, the value of pure air, breathing 
through the nose, and rhythmic, deep breathing are 



PREFACE Vll 

among the points especially emphasized, as are also 
the evil effects of adenoids and improper posture. 
The benefits of bathing, the importance of keeping the 
kidneys well flushed, the necessity for protecting the 
brain and spinal cord, the bad effects of obstructing 
the circulation, and the wisdom of guarding against 
contagious diseases, especially tuberculosis, is each 
made prominent in its respective chapter. An earnest 
endeavor has also been made to impress children with 
the great value of the eyes, ears, and teeth to the 
body, and to state the directions for protecting and 
preserving each so simply and clearly that they will 
appeal even to the youngest as both easy to follow 
and directly beneficial. The chapter on the care of 
little children should prove a valuable feature, since 
so many school children assist in the care of little 
ones at home. 

Facts concerning anatomy and processes are given, 
if they can be readily understood, and will help chil- 
dren to see the need of forming habits conducive to 
health; otherwise they are omitted. After each 
chapter Points for Special Study are given, and these 
are printed so that they can be studied with the 
least possible strain to the eyes. Questions for use 
in study and recitation also follow each chapter. 

Like the basic information in other studies, the 
essential facts of Physiology and Hygiene need con- 



viil PREFACE 

stant repetition, if they are to be well understood 
and practically applied. For this reason "The Build- 
ing and Care of the Body " may be used to advantage 
in three successive grades. For example, in the fourth 
grade it may be read, and the important points talked 
over in class; the text may be profitably read and 
discussed again in the fifth grade, and the Points for 
Special Study memorized; and the whole may be 
carefully studied in the sixth grade, pupils being 
required to answer the questions following each chap- 
ter. Under the guidance of either teachers or parents, 
such use of the pages that follow should inspire chil- 
dren with the idea that health and strength are the 
best wealth, and that not medicine, but common sense 
in daily living, will insure them the possession of this 
splendid capital for the future. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Best of All Good Things .... 1 

II. The Body 4 

III. The Food Components 9 

IV. Digestion — the Food Passage and its Fluid 

Stations 14 

V. Mastication 19 

YI. Digestion in the Stomach and Intestines . . 24 

VII. Some Facts to remember about Eating . . 27 

VIII. Milk and its Products 34 

IX. Eggs, Meat, and Fish 42 

X. Grains and Grain Foods 48 

XL Other Vegetable Foods 52 

XII. Drinks 58 

XIII. The Chief Mistakes in the Choice of Foods . 66 

XIV. The Need for Pure Air 71 

XV. Ventilation 77 

XVI. Breathing 87 

XVII. Mouth Breathing and Adenoids .... 100 

XVIII. The Organs of Excretion 105 

XIX. The Blood and the Circulation .... 116 

XX. The Brain and Nerves 125 

XXI. The Teeth 138 

XXII. The Eyes 148 

XXIII. The Ears 161 

XXIY. The Voice .172 

XXV. Clothing, Nails, and Hair 178 

ix 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Common Accidents . . . . . . 185 

XXVII. Contagious Diseases 192 

XXVIII. Exercise and Bodily Vigor . . . .206 

XXIX. The Care of Little Children .... 210 

Glossary 229 

Index 233 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OP 
THE BODY 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE 

BODY 

CHAPTER I 

THE BEST OF ALL GOOD THINGS 

Why should so many years be spent in school? 
Most children would answer, " To learn." If asked 
the reason for learning, the reply would very likely 
be, " So that we can earn money when we grow older." 
Further question as to the benefits expected from the 
money would bring many different answers. 

A beautiful home on the avenue might be the fond 
wish of some. Others might be hoping for positions of 
wealth and power; and still others, for travel in for- 
eign countries, or some similar benefit in the future. 

Many of these good things would, indeed, add much 
to one's power to be happy and useful, and so they are 
well worth striving for. But to enjoy any of them 
fully, there is something else that all need to have. 
That something is a strong, healthy body. With it 
one can be happy and useful, even though he is poor. 
Without good health one cannot be entirely happy, 



2 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

no matter how rich he may be. For this reason a 
strong, healthy body may well be called one of the 
very best of all good things. 

But how may this best of all good things be gained ? 
Do not our bodies " just grow," like Topsy in " Uncle 
Tom's Cabin " ? Do we not become healthy or sickly 
simply as a matter of luck ? Surely children can do 
nothing to keep themselves strong. Mother, or nurse, 
or the doctor are the only ones who can do that. 

Strange as it may seem, children do not become 
healthy or sickly just as a matter of luck. Mother, or 
nurse, or the doctor are not the only ones who can 
help keep boys and girls strong and well. In fact, the 
one who can do the most toward making any child a 
strong, healthy man or woman is that child him- 
self. 

" I should just like to know how ! " some little folks 
may exclaim. " There are those big college girls or 
fellows who play ball, or golf, or tennis in such fine 
style! Or there is my Aunt Mary who can do every- 
thing so well, and is young and handsome at fifty! 
Or there is dear old grandfather, hale and hearty at 
seventy-five, who seems to enjoy life just as much as 
young people ! I would surely work my hardest to be- 
come like them! " 

It is possible to become like the grown-up young 
people who play games so well; or even like handsome, 



THE BEST OF ALL GOOD THINGS 3 

useful Aunt Mary, or hale and hearty grandfather. 
Indeed, most children can gain such good fortune, 
if they only begin to try for it soon enough. Two 
things, however, must be learned if they succeed. 
The first is how to help wisely in the building of their 
bodies; the second, how to protect and to keep their 
bodies from harm. 

The chapters which follow tell you how to do both 
of these important things. Read them as eagerly and 
earnestly as if they showed how to gain the largest of 
fortunes. Try also to put into daily practice what 
they teach. By so doing you will gain for yourself the 
best of all good things, a strong, healthy body. 



CHAPTER II 

THE BODY 

Before we can learn to become good builders and 
caretakers of our bodies ; we shall need to know the 
names of their chief parts. Of course we know such 
commonly named parts as the head, neck, arms, and 
legs. The part of the body between the neck and legs 
is called the trunk. The trunk is divided into two parts. 
The upper of these is named the chest or thorax, and it 
contains the heart and lungs. 

The lower part of the trunk is named the abdomen 
(ab-do'men). In the upper left-hand side of the ab- 
domen is the stomach, and in the upper right-hand side, 
the liver. The intestines (in-tes'tinz) occupy the rest 
of the front side of the abdomen. Back of these are 
the kidneys, bladder, and other important organs. 

The heart, lungs, stomach, liver, etc., are called 
organs, because they do important work in the body. 
Later on we shall learn the part each has, and how 
necessary all are to our health and well-being. 

Did you ever see a butcher cut up an animal for the 
market? If so, you may have noticed that under- 
neath the inside covering or skin there were both muscle 

4 



THE BODY 



and fat. Under these you also saw the hard bone 
which he had to use an ax or saw to cut through. 

The Skeleton. — In the 
human body there are about 
two hundred bones. All 
these bones in place to- 
gether make up the skele- 
ton. The skeleton is often 7 , 
spoken of as the framework ES 
of the body. On page 6 
we see the skeleton of a man 
with the common names of 

H! 

its larger parts shown. These diaphragm 
names should be learned, L,VER ~ 

S' 

for they are often used. 

J p; 

Growth. — All of us were 
once little babies. If we »»»' 
live to be twenty-one years 

J J IV 

old or more, we shall very 
likely be as tall as some of 
the men and women whom 

wp Irnnw Tn nthpr -wrnrrlQ Copyright, 1908, in Ritchie's Human 

We KI1UW. Ill OLliei WOIUb, Physiology, World Book Company, pub- 

-■ hi ,i Ushers, Y onkers-on-Hudson , New York. 

we shall have our growth. 

Section of the body showing the 
Year by year OUr bones, positions of the organs in the cavi- 

muscles, and organs will 

grow larger. Daily the tissues (tish'uz) (the thin layers 

that make up these bones, muscles, and organs) will 




THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 



NASAL BONES 



SHOULDER JOINT, 



SCAPULA 
OR SHOULDER BLADE- 



ELBOW JOINT- 



THE CRANIUM OR SKULL 

MALAR (CHEEK) BONE 
SUPERIOR MAXILLARY 
OR UPPER JAW BONE 

NFERIOR MAXILLARY OR LOWER JAW BONE 
SPINAL COLUMN 

(CLAVICLE) COLLAR BONE 



HUMERUS 

OR BONE OF 

THE UPPER ARM 




( BONES 
J OF THE 
RADIUS J L0W ER 



METATARSALS OR 

BONES BETWEEN THE 

ANKLE AND TOES 



The Skeleton. 



THE BODY 7 

wear out and have to be repaired. Always the body 
must keep all of its parts warm. Food, air, and water 
are the materials the body makes use of for growth and 
repairs and for warmth. 

The Blood. — Sometimes we have seen blood flow 
from a cut. Maybe we thought little of the blood or 
the cut, for it did not hurt much. But our parents 
or teachers quickly bound the wound to stop the flow 
of blood. They knew that blood is the great building 
agent which carries what is needed of food and air to 
all parts of the body. For this reason they feared we 
might be weakened by the loss of blood. 

There are many good stories that we like to hear. 
I hope that there are also many of us that enjoy read- 
ing good books. But of all the good tales we have 
heard or read, few are more curious, and none can be 
of greater value to us, than the ones that are to 
follow. 

These stories will tell how the body makes use of 
food, air, and water in building, warming, and repair- 
ing itself. At the very outset there is one fine thing 
that we shall be glad to hear. The better we know 
these stories, the handsomer, and happier, and more 
useful we can be. The better we can tell them to 
others, the more good we shall be able to do our friends. 

Note. — After many of the chapters points for special 
study will be given. Pupils should be able to tell all of 



8 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

these to their teachers and parents. They should also be 
able to answer the questions that are given. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. The part of the body between the neck and the legs 
is called the trunk, 

2. The upper part of the trunk is named the chest or 
thorax. It contains the lungs and heart. 

3. The lower part of the trunk is called the abdomen. 
It contains the stomach, intestines, kidneys, liver, and other 
important organs. 

4. The body makes use of food, air, and water for growth 
and repairs and for warmth. 

5. Blood is the great building agent that carries what is 
needed of the food and the air to every part of the body. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Give the name of the part of the body between the neck 
and the legs. 

2. What is the upper part of the trunk called, and what 
organs does it contain? 

3. Name the lower part of the trunk, and tell what organs 
it contains. 

4. About how many bones are there in the body? 

5. What is the skeleton? 

6. Name three materials that the body makes use of for 
growth, repairs, and for warmth. 

7. In what are building and fuel materials carried to all 
parts of the body? 



CHAPTER III 

THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

THE FOOD COMPONENTS 

In the last chapter we learned that blood carries 
what is needed of the food to every part of the body. 
We know how unlike blood is to bread, vegetables, 
and many other foods. How great must be the changes 
before the food we eat is in such form that it can be 
taken into the blood ! 

Food Components. — A component (kom-po'nent) of 
anything is one of the materials of which it is made. 
One of the first things to learn about food is that only 
certain of its components are of use to the body. 
These are proteid (pro'te-id), fat, starch, and sugar, 
and some mineral salts, of which lime, iron, phosphorus 
(fos'for-us), and common salt are among the most im- 
portant. 

Proteid is the chief component of blood, muscle, 
and all the vital organs of the body. For this reason 
our food should contain plenty of proteid for the 
growth and repair of the tissues. Otherwise our mus- 
cles and organs will not be strong. The white of egg, 

9 



10 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

lean meat, peas, and beans are examples of food rich 
in proteid. 

Fat. — We all know how useful coal is in furnish- 
ing warmth to homes and power to engines. Why 
is fat of similar use to the body? Because it fur- 
nishes fuel for warmth, and energy to give muscles 
the power of motion. Meat, cream, butter, olive 
oil, and lard are good examples of foods that are rich 
in fat. 

When do our bodies need the most heat? In cold 
weather, of course; and that is the season during which, 
as a rule, we should eat the most fat. People of 
the polar regions eat large quantities '(kwon'ti-tiz) of 
tallow or whale blubber. Here such foods would be 
distasteful. There they need them for warmth, and 
so enjoy their taste. 

When do our bodies need the most energy? With- 
out doubt at times when the muscles are in active use. 
This explains why people who work hard or play hard 
need to eat much fat. When we are doing chiefly 
mental work, with little physical exercise, less fat 
should be eaten than when we are actively using the 
muscles. 

Starch. — Starch also furnishes fuel to the body, 
but it does not give nearly so much heat and energy as 
fat. Potatoes have much starch. So also have flour, 
rice, oatmeal, and all cereals. In a temperate climate 



THE FOOD COMPONENTS 11 

the body should be supplied with much more starch 
than fat. 

Sugar. — Sugar is another food component that fur- 
nishes heat and energy to the body. Perhaps we think 
of it chiefly as in sugar , candy , and sirup. It is also 
in milk, fruits, and certain vegetables, such as corn and 
beets. In fact, there are many factories in which sugar 
is made from beets. 

Sugar is a good food when eaten in small quantities, 
but much should not be eaten at a time. The reason 
is that too much sugar is likely to get the digestive 
organs out of order. Without doubt many children 
are weak and sickly from eating too much candy and 
other foods rich in sugar. 

Salt. — We may have read about animals traveling 
miles to find salt licks. They do this because they can- 
not live without salt. Men, too, must have salt, and 
that is why it is daily on our dining tables. It is better 
for food to be well seasoned with salt while being 
cooked. If it is, too much salt is not so likely to be 
eaten. 

Other Minerals. — Lime is often in drinking water, 
and is present in most of the cereals. It is needed to 
keep the bones and other hard parts of the body strong 
and healthy. Small quantities of magnesia and soda 
are present in vegetables that grow under the ground. 
Iron is in all green vegetables. Phosphorus is in the 



12 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

yolk of eggs. All of these minerals are needed by the 
body; and hence they must be supplied in the food we 
eat. 

Good Sense in the Use of Food. — Of course we want 
to be just as good-looking and likable persons as we 
can. We want also, I am sure, to be just as skillful as 
possible at play and at work. Here is a fact, then, 
worthy of our careful attention (at-ten'shun). Using 
good sense daily as to what we eat will greatly aid us 
both in being and in doing our best. 

If good lumber is used in its building, a house is 
usually strong and durable. So if food rich in building 
and fuel materials is supplied to our bodies, they, too, 
are likely to be strong and healthy. The saying, 
" Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are," 
is really not a claim without good reason. We should, 
indeed, be thankful that, even while quite young, we 
can so easily learn the building value of the common 
foods. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. The food components that are of use to the body are 
proteid, fat, starch, sugar, and certain minerals, of which 
salt, lime, and iron are among the most important. 

2. Blood, muscle, and all the vital organs are chiefly made 
up of proteid. On this account much proteid must be sup- 
plied in our food to keep the body strong. 

3. Fat furnishes the body fuel for warmth and energy 
for motion. More fat should be eaten in cold than in warm 



THE FOOD COMPONENTS 13 

weather; and more while at physical work than when at 
mental work. Growing children, as a rule, need much 
fat. 

4. Sugar should be eaten only in small quantities. Many 
children are made weak and sickly by eating too much 
candy and other sweets. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name some foods that contain much proteid. 

2. Mention some foods rich in fat. 

3. What does starch furnish the body? 

4. Name a few foods that have much starch. 

5. Why do people in the polar regions eat much fat? 

6. In what drink and food is lime found? 

7. What minerals needed by the body are in the vege- 
tables that grow underground? 

8. What vegetables contain iron? 

9. In what common food is phosphorus present? 



CHAPTER IV 

THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

DIGESTION — THE FOOD PASSAGE AND ITS FLUID 
STATIONS 

Importance of Digestion. — We have learned of what 
use the different food components are to the body. 
Is finding out which of these the common foods con- 
tain all that is now necessary for wise building? That 
might be true if the body could get the needed ma- 
terials from all foods with equal ease. 

But such is not the case. It is much harder for the 
useful components to be taken from some foods than 
it is from others. The changing of food in the body 
to a form from which building materials can readily 
be taken into the blood is called digestion. 

Suppose we were sure that our future wealth would 
depend upon how well we knew arithmetic. Very 
likely we should need little urging to study that sub- 
ject as well as we possibly could. Our greatest wealth 
in the future — health and happiness — will depend 
largely upon our digestion. Fortunately what we need 
to know about it can be learned much more easily 
than arithmetic for there are no long tables to com- 

14 



THE FOOD PASSAGE AND ITS FLUID STATIONS 15 



.Salivary 
GJand 



mit to memory. Indeed, the process of digestion is 
so curious that its study will be pleasure rather than 
work. 

Most foods are solids. Blood is a liquid. For this 
reason food has to be dissolved or made liquid in form 
before being taken into the blood. In fact, digestion 
is largely a process of dissolving or changing the form 
of food. We shall now 
see where and by what 
this change in the form 
of food is brought 
about. 

The Food Canal. — 
The passage in the body 
through which food 
passes is called the ali- 
mentary (al-i-men'- 
ta-ry) or food canal. 
Its parts in order are 
the mouth, pharynx 
(f ar'mks) , esophagus 
(e-sof'a-gus), stomach, small intestine, and large intes- 
tine. The small and large intestines together are often 
called the bowels. The length of this passage in any 
person is, as a rule, five or six times his height. 

That seems very long, since it is, at the most, only 
a few feet from the mouth to the base of the trunk. 



Gaf! 

Bladdej 



Duodenu 




Vermiforr 
Appendix 



Alimentary canal. 



16 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

More than two-thirds of this length, however, is in 
the small intestine, which, as we can see in the picture 
on page 15, lies in the abdomen in coils. 

The Digestive Fluid Stations. — In five places along 
this lengthy passage there are chemical (kem'i-kal) 
stations supplying fluids that help digest food. These 
stations are called glands. How useful they are to 
the body, we shall soon see. 

Who has not been interested in fairy stories about 
common things being changed into gold? Here is a 
fact more interesting and, at the same time, true. The 
fluids from the glands in the digestive passage change 
food into such form that its building and fuel materials 
may be taken into the blood. Let us now see where 
in the digestive passage these chemical or fluid stations 
aTe. 

By looking at the picture on page 15 we can see that 
the first set is in the mouth, and that they are called 
salivary glands. The fluid they secrete is named 
saliva. The next set, the gastric glands, is in the lin- 
ing of the stomach. They secrete gastric juice. 

In the picture on page 15 notice the point where the 
stomach and small intestine join. Just at the right 
of this point is another chemical station in the food 
passage. It is called the liver, and the fluid it secretes 
is named bile or gall. By looking carefully at the pic- 
ture on page 15 you will see a little sac called the gall 



THE FOOD PASSAGE AND ITS FLUID STATIONS 17 

bladder, in which the bile or gall secreted by the liver 
is stored. 

Just opposite the liver and on the left-hand side of the 
small intestine is the pancreas (pan'cre-as), which is 
also a chemical or fluid station of our food canal. 
The digestive fluid it secretes is called pancreatic (pan'- 
kre-at'ik) juice. This fluid enters the intestine through 
the same duct as the bile and at a point in the small 
intestine near the stomach. In the lining of the small 
intestine are the intestinal glands, the fifth and last 
of the fluid-secreting glands. They secrete intestinal 
fluid. 

So we see that there are five fluids which mix with 
the food at different places along the digestive canal, 
and aid in digestion. After years of careful experi- 
ments, doctors have found out that each of these five 
fluids has its special work. The part each has in so 
changing food that its building and fuel materials can 
be taken into the blood, we shall read in chapters 
that follow. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. It is harder for the digestive organs to take the useful 
components from some foods than from others. 

2. The changing of food in the body to a form from which 
building materials can be readily taken into the blood is 
called digestion. 

3. Solid food must be changed to liquid form before it 
can be taken into the blood. 



18 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

4. The passage in the body through which food passes 
during digestion is called the alimentary or food canal. Its 
length is about five or six times a person's height. 

5. The parts of the food canal in order are the mouth, 
the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach, the small intestine, 
and the large intestine. 

6. Along the food passage there are five different places 
where glands furnish fluids that assist in digestion. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Which of the five parts of the food canal is the longest? 
What part of the length of the entire canal is it? 

2. What glands are in the mouth, and what fluid do they 
secrete? 

3. Where and by what glands is gastric juice secreted? 

4. What fluid does the liver secrete, and where is this 
fluid stored? 

5. By what is pancreatic juice secreted? 

6. Where does the intestinal juice mix with the food? 

7. What are the small and large intestines together often 
called? 



CHAPTER V 

THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

MASTICATION 

If bread or any similar food is left in water, it becomes 
soaked, and its parts separate. The warmer the water, 
the more quickly these changes take place. The 
smaller the parts into which the food is broken before 
being placed in the water, the more rapidly it will 
become moistened, If certain chemicals are added, 
greater and more rapid changes will take place. 

The Use of Saliva. — Something similar happens 
when food is eaten. The action of the jaws in chew- 
ing, and the movement of food about the mouth, 
causes saliva to pour out from the glands, and mix 
with what is being chewed. The longer food is chewed, 
the finer it becomes, and the more freely saliva mixes 
with it. 

Saliva is the fluid that keeps the inside of the mouth 
moist. Like water, saliva moistens food. It also 
contains an alkali (al'ka-ll) that digests or begins the 
digestion of starch. While saliva does not digest the 
other food components, it aids in changing them to a 

19 



20 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

liquid form, thus better preparing them for the juices 
farther on in the food passage. 

Benefits from Thoroughly Chewing Food. — Another 
great benefit comes from thoroughly chewing food. 
Our appetite is satisfied when enough has been eaten. 
This is because food in a liquid or semi-liquid form 
affects the nerves of taste on the tongue. Poorly 
chewed food does not affect these nerves of taste, and 
so too much is likely to be eaten before the appetite 
is satisfied. 

Bad Results from not Chewing Food Thoroughly. — 
Three bad results come from eating too fast and not 
chewing the food thoroughly. The digestion of starch 
is not well begun in the mouth. The other food com- 
ponents are not properly prepared for the digestive 
juices farther on. The sense of taste is not satisfied 
by partly chewed food, and so too much is likely to be 
eaten. 

Have you ever heard a person say that his stomach 
felt as heavy as lead? Very likely he had been eating 
too fast. On that account his stomach was overloaded 
with food, which was neither well divided by the teeth 
nor well mixed with saliva. No wonder that it seemed 
heavy in his stomach. 

Effects of Cold or Acid Foods on Digestion. — The 
following is another important fact that all can under- 
stand. The normal or usual temperature (temper- 



MASTICATION 21 

a-tur) of the inside of the mouth and stomach is about 
98|- . Look at a thermometer, and notice how that point 
is marked. The digestive juices flow freely at that tem- 
perature, but when, from any cause, the inside of the 
mouth or stomach becomes cooler, both saliva and gas- 
tric juice cease mixing freely with the food. 

For this reason much cold food or drink should not 
be taken with our meals. That is as plain as can be. 
Another point equally plain is that very little acid 
food, such as pickles, should be eaten, since acid 
weakens the effect of saliva. Much water also weak- 
ens or dilutes both saliva and gastric juice. Hence 
very little or no water should be drunk while eat- 
ing. 

Loss from Hasty Eating. — Children often eat hastily 
to get out quickly to play. Of course they do not stop 
to think that it takes good muscle to make skillful 
players. To build such muscle the best materials 
must be furnished the blood; these cannot be long 
supplied by poorly digested food. 

Thoroughly chewing the food and mixing it with saliva 
is called mastication (mas-ti-ka/shun). Complete mas- 
tication is one thing in preparing food for building ma- 
terials in our bodies over which we have full control. 
It is easy enough to eat slowly and chew thoroughly, 
if one only gets into the habit of doing so. One does 
not have to be large or clever to learn to do either. 



22 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



Only a little care and thought for a few days should 
fix the habit. 

Sometimes people go to doctors, fearing that they 

have some se- 
rious disease of 
the digestive 
organs. Often 
the wise doc- 
tor advises 
three things: 
" Chew your 
food thor- 
oughly. Drink 
little or no 
water with your 
meals. Do not 
take cold or 
acid foods or drinks with your meals. " Even very 
little people can follow such simple but wise advice. 
Surely any child can understand that the good looks 
and good feelings which the habit of thorough mastica- 
tion is likely to bring, are a reward for which they may 
well work their very hardest. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Few things can count more toward making one healthy, 
strong, and happy than forming the habit of eating slowly 
and thoroughly chewing one's food at each meal. 




The wise doctor advises, "Chew your food thor- 
oughly." 



MASTICATION 23 

2. Taking much cold food or drink with our meals lessens 
the flow of digestive juices, and thus retards digestion. If 
used at all, such food or drink should always be taken very 
slowly. 

3. Water dilutes both saliva and gastric juice. For 
this reason it is not well to drink water at meals, nor within 
a half hour before or an hour or more after mealtime. 

4. By chewing food thoroughly we keep from eating 
more than our bodies really need. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell what happens to bread if it is left in water. 

2. What fluid keeps the inside of the mouth moist? 

3. What causes saliva to pour out from the glands in 
the mouth? 

4. What component of food does saliva digest or begin 
the digestion of? 

5. Mention three bad results of eating too fast. 

6. Why does taking cold foods or drinks with meals 
retard digestion? 

7. What effect has acid on the work of saliva? 

8. Tell why children should not eat hastily to get out to 
play. 

9. What three things about eating do doctors often 
advise their patients? 



J 



CHAPTER VI 
THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES 

Stomach Digestion. — Food passes from the mouth 
down through the pharynx and esophagus into the 
stomach. (See picture, page 15.) In the lining of the 
stomach are thousands of little glands from which gas- 
tric juice flows and mixes with the food. The mixing 
process is assisted by the muscles of the stomach which 
move the food along. In the half of the stomach near 
the small intestine , these muscles also keep up an active 
churning motion. 

Gastric juice digests or begins the digestion of pro- 
teid. Food remains in the stomach from one to four 
or five hours. During this time it is changed into a 
soft pulpy substance called chyme. The muscle at the 
end of the stomach, the pylorus (pi-lo' rus) or gate- 
keeper, then allows it to pass into the small intestine. 

Intestinal Digestion. — In the small intestine bile, 
pancreatic juice, and intestinal fluid mix with the 
chyme. They act upon the fat and the undigested 
starch and proteids, and through their action the chyme 

24 




STOMACH AND INTESTINAL DIGESTION 25 

is changed to a liquid substance called chyle. On ac- 
count of the great length of the small intestine, and the 
fact that its lining lies in cres- 
cent-like ridges, the food is, as 
a rule, from four to fifteen hours 
in passing through it. Thus 
the digestive juices are given small intestine cut open to 

show the folds of the mucous 

a long time to do their work. membrane. 

Absorption (ab-sorp'shun). — But how does the 
blood get its building and fuel materials from chyle? 
Growing from the inner lining of the small intestine 
are tiny hairlike projections (pro-jek'shunz) called villi 
(vil'li). Near the stomach there are but few of these, 
but the number increases until, farther on, the lining 
of the small intestine looks quite like velvet, because 
there are so many. 

Even though they are so tiny, these villi contain 
blood vessels, which soak up the digested part of the 
food. It is thus taken into the blood and carried to 
whatever part of the body needs such materials. 

Waste Products of Digestion. — What becomes of 
the waste and the undigested parts of the food? The 
muscles of the abdomen and the intestine force these 
through the large intestine and out of the body. It is 
most important that the body should rid itself of these 
waste materials each day. Often they are very poison- 
ous. If they remain too long in the intestine, this 



26 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

poison is taken into the blood, causing headache, 
vomiting, and other serious sickness. 

Such unpleasant results may be prevented by a 
thorough movement of the bowels daily. For several 
good reasons, early in the morning is the best time. 
Attending to this important duty at a regular hour each 
day will soon form the correct habit. Like thorough 
mastication, it is one of the few habits that may add 
much to our comfort and usefulness. Its neglect will 
in time bring discomfort and ill health. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. If food is not thoroughly chewed, gastric juice does 
not act upon it readily. 

2. We should not drink much water at meals, because it 
dilutes the gastric juice. 

3. Very little cold food or drink should be taken with our 
meals. It may lower the temperature of the stomach and 
lessen the flow of gastric juice. 

4. We should form the habit of having a thorough 
movement of the bowels daily. This habit will greatly 
assist us in keeping well and strong. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What component of food does gastric juice digest or 
begin the digestion of ? 

2. About how long does food remain in the stomach? 

3. What three digestive fluids act upon chyme in the small 
intestine? 

4. Why does it take food several hours to pass through 
the small intestine? Where are the villi? Tell their use. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 
SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT EATING 

The more a builder knows about his materials and 
how to use them, the better the house he can construct. 
The more we know about foods and digestion, the 
healthier and stronger w^e can be. Of course we must 
put the knowledge into daily practice, or it will do us 
little good. 

The glands in our food canal secrete or take their 
juices from the blood. When any part of the body is 
being actively used, an extra supply of blood goes to 
that part. At mealtime the stomach, of course, needs 
an extra supply of blood from which its glands may take 
gastric juice. 

Hard Work or Play near Mealtime. — If we play or 
work hard just before meals, our arms, legs, brains, 
or some other parts of the body are using more blood 
than usual. This being the case, it takes the stomach 
longer to get the large supply of blood needed by its 
muscles and glands to digest the food properly. Hence 
if this practice is often followed, digestion is likely to 
be weakened. 

27 



28 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



We should remember not to study, work, or play 
hard just before or soon after meals. If we can avoid 
doing so, it is also well not to go to meals with either 
mind or body very tired. A few minutes' rest will often 
get all the organs in better condition for work. A little 
care in this respect will enable us both to work and to 




Table set for four persons. 

play better at the right time. But some children may 
say, " We won't stop playing hard on account of diges- 
tion, — we are having so much fun " ; or, " We simply 
must do this study now or lose credit ! " Wise busi- 
ness men invest for the future. Is it not wise, too, for 
children to think of future enjoyment both as to play 
and to study? 

Effect of Excitement on Digestion. — Sorrow or excite- 
ment at meals lessens the flow of the digestive juices. 
It is the lack of saliva that makes one's mouth so dry 
when speaking the first piece in public. A man who 
is nervous about speaking at a public dinner does not 



SOME FACTS TO BE MEMBER ABOUT EATING 



29 



eat very much. One reason for this is that the gastric 
juice is not flowing freely. 

Perhaps you have seen a person lose his appetite 
at a meal on account of receiving an unexpected tele- 
gram. Laughing and being 
happy stimulate the diges- 
tive glands to better ac- 
tion. For this reason it 
is well to be free from 
thought and care at meal- 
time and thoroughly enjoy 
ourselves. Lessons, work, 
anything that causes hard 
thought or may excite worry, 
should be put aside from 
the mind. 

Cooking and serving 
Food. — Sometimes when 
we are hungry, the very 
smell of food causes saliva 
to pour out into our 
mouths. If we speak of it 
at all, we say, " That food 
makes my mouth water. " 
Savory food makes the glands of both the mouth and 
stomach pour out their juice more freely than unsa- 
vory food. Food that looks appetizing (ap'pe-tiz-mg) 




An invalid's tray. 



30 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

has a similar effect; and so does that which tastes well. 
All of these facts show why our meals should be well 
cooked and ^attractively served. 

For a similar reason it is well to commence a meal 
with some food that has a pleasing taste. Soup is 
especially good for this purpose. Being a liquid, it 
affects the taste nerves of the tongue more quickly 
than solid food. The pleasant taste and the odor both 
stimulate the glands of the mouth and stomach. Its 
temperature, if not too hot, has a similar effect. 

Resting the Digestive Organs. — How angry it often 
makes us to see a man whip a horse that seems to be 
doing its very best! Some people use just as little 
sense with their digestive organs. How? They over- 
load their stomachs with half-chewed food, and then 
take medicine to force the digestive organs to make up 
for their lack of care and wisdom. 

Usually (u'zhu-al-ly) the medicine does spur the 
glands to harder work, and the bowels are made to 
move. The glands have to rest, however, to make 
up for the overwork, and so they may not be able 
readily to digest the next meal that arrives. We all 
know how much benefit is often gained from a few 
hours' sleep, when we are tired. Rest is often the 
best remedy for overworked digestive organs. If one 
feels that he has eaten too much, it is sensible to eat 
very little or not at all for a meal or two. 



SOME FACTS TO BEMEMBEB ABOUT EATING 31 

Between Meals. — Many children do not seem to 
know that the digestive organs must have some regular 
rest. Their parents, too, appear to be ignorant of the 
same thing. Such children eat candy, cake, and other 
food at recess, during school hours, or any time they 
happen to want to eat, when at home. 

The parents wonder why these children have so little 
appetite at the regular meals. They cannot under- 
stand why neither the beauty nor the health of which 
the baby years gave promise is present. They are 
also puzzled to know what makes their children so 
cross and ill-tempered. 

Eating between meals might easily be the cause of 
all these things. Their children's digestive organs have 
not had the rest that they needed, and so have worked 
badly. As a natural result, their food has not been 
well digested, and, of course, neither their health nor 
their feelings can be the best. Such children very 
likely think themselves most fortunate to get these 
" goodies " when they want them. As a matter of fact, 
it is one of the most unfortunate things possible for 
them. 

Soaking Foods. — Another very bad habit is that 
of soaking cookies, cake, or any other food in some 
liquid we are taking with our meals. Such food usually 
contains much starch which should be thoroughly 
mixed with saliva before passing into the stomach. 



32 THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 

Of course, after being soaked it is readily swallowed 
without mastication. 

Tobacco and Digestion. — Some men and a few boys 
use tobacco. It is not a clean habit. Besides injuring 
in other ways, it wastes saliva, because of the large 
amount of expectoration (eks-pek'to-ra/shun). On ac- 
count of the waste of saliva, chewing gum is also a 
habit that one should avoid. 

Alcohol and Digestion. — : There are people who use 
alcoholic drinks with meals, thinking that they assist < 
digestion. This is a great mistake. It has been 
proved that such drinks inflame the stomach and re- 
tard digestion. Alcohol is not a food, and should be 
taken only when prescribed by a physician. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Rest from hard play or study for a few minutes before 
and for a half hour or more after meals will make us able to 
work and to play better at other times. It will also help 
us to keep in condition for enjoying both work and play, 
no matter how old we may become. 

2. Happiness at mealtime stimulates the digestive glands 
to better work. Sadness or excitement has the opposite 
effect. 

3. Food that looks well and has a pleasing taste causes 
the digestive glands to work better than food that is not 
pleasing. 

4. Rest is often the best cure for digestive organs that 
have been overworked. One should take little or no medicine, 
unless advised to do so by a physician. 



SOME FACTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT EATING 33 

5. Eating between meals causes much ill health. It is 
a poor practice for children who really enjoy fun, and care 
to look their best. 

QUESTIONS 

1. From what do the digestive glands take their juices? 

2. Why does hard study or play just before or soon after 
meals retard digestion? 

3. What effect has sorrow or excitement upon digestion, 
and why? 

4. How does the smell of savory food affect the digestive 
glands? 

5. Why is soup a good food with which to begin a hearty 
meal? 

6. Tell how the way some people treat their stomachs 
is like the bad treatment of an overloaded horse. 

7. Why is rest one of the best remedies for overeating? 

8. Mention some bad effects of eating between meals. 

9. Tell why soaking food that we are about to eat is 
an unwise habit. 

10. Tell why using tobacco is not good for digestion. 

11. Why should gum chewing be avoided? 

12. Give two good reasons why alcoholic drinks are not 
good for digestion. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

We have now learned about the useful components 
of food, and how the digestive juices prepare them for 
the blood. From these facts we know that the value 
of what we eat, to the body, may be judged by two 
things. First, which and how much of the useful 
food components does the food contain? Second, 
with what ease can the digestive juices separate these 
from the waste and make use of them? 

For some years we may have been eating many com- 
mon foods largely because we liked them, and with 
little or no knowledge as to the benefit our bodies 
might receive from them. Surely it will now be inter- 
esting to learn about their building and fuel value, and 
ease of digestion. Who can tell how much benefit this 
information may be to some of us, if we are sensible 
enough to make use of it at our daily meals ? 

Components of Milk. — Milk is about seven-eighths 
water. The other eighth is made up of nearly equal 
parts of sugar, fat, and proteid, and a much smaller 
amount of mineral salts. Since so much of milk is 

34 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 35 

water, one might think its food value slight. Never- 
theless, since it contains all the building and fuel com- 
ponents the body needs, and is, as a rule, easily digested, 
it is one of the most valuable of foods. 

Cream. — Few children need to be told what cream 
is, for they have seen it taken from the top of the 
bottle or can of milk. Cream rises to the top of milk 
that is left standing because it is lighter in weight than 
the rest. From one-fifth to two-fifths of cream is fat. 
Cream sells for about four times as much as milk. 
For this reason, dishonest dealers skim some of the 
cream off before delivering milk to customers. Such 
dealers may also put skimmed milk or water into their 
milk to increase the quantity. In both cases the value 
of the milk as food is decreased. 

It is fortunate that such fraud can be readily de- 
tected. ^Yhen pure milk is poured from a glass, it 
will not run off, as will water or tea, but some of it 
will cling to the sides. If the cream that rises on milk 
is not from one-tenth to one-fifth of the whole, then we 
may know the milk is not as pure as it should be. 
^Yhen milk looks thin or has a bluish color, we may 
be quite sure that it is skimmed or watered. 

Keeping Milk Sweet. — To be valuable as food, milk 
must also be sweet. The air contains millions of veg- 
etable organisms (or'gan-izmz), called bacteria (bak- 
te'ri-a), which are too small to be seen without a 



36 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

microscope (mi'kro-skop). Later we shall learn that 
some of these produce disease. Others bring about the 
molding or decay of food, and still others cause milk to 
sour. 

Bacteria and Milk. — Under favorable conditions 
bacteria increase so rapidly that one may multiply to a 
colony of several millions in twenty-four hours. This 
is the reason they can do so much damage. They can 
do little harm, however, in a temperature of from 
thirty-two to fifty degrees. (See picture of thermometer, 
page 80.) A temperature of from one hundred fifty- 
five to two hundred two degrees destroys them, if it 
is kept at that point for from fifteen to twenty minutes. 

Pasteurized and Sterilized Milk. — Milk that has been 
kept for ten or fifteen minutes at a temperature of one 
hundred fifty-five degrees is called " pasteurized " 
milk, and the name " sterilized " milk is given when it 
has been kept at a temperature of two hundred two 
degrees fifteen minutes. Either can usually be bought 
in cities. Neither digests as readily as milk that has 
not been heated. In hot weather, however, or at any 
time there is reason to think that the milk has not been 
carefully handled, it is well to pasteurize or sterilize it. 
It will then keep better, and there is less chance of in- 
jury to the little children that drink it. 

Care of Milk. — Bacteria get into milk from the 
milker's hands, from the cow, from the air of the barn, 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



37 



or from unclean bottles or dishes. The cleaner all of 
these are kept, the smaller the number of bacteria 
that will get into the milk. Scarlet fever and similar 
diseases are often spread by means of milk. No one who 
is recovering from such diseases or is in anyway exposed 




Milking time. 

to them should milk cows or do any work about a 
dairy. After milking, the dairyman strains the milk. 
This should be done in a clean, cool milk house away 
from the dust of the barn. When milk is carelessly 
handled, ten thousand or more bacteria are often found 
in one drop. But when the dairy is clean and the milk 
is handled with great care, it may have as few as from 



38 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

one hundred to two hundred bacteria in a drop. The 
latter milk will keep sweet much longer than the former. 

Milk should be placed on ice soon after milking. 
Then the bacteria it contains will not increase so fast 
as they would in warm air. All cans, bottles, and other 
utensils used in handling milk should be thoroughly 
cleansed in boiling hot water to kill the bacteria that 
may have remained on the inside. There should not 
be any deposit of dirt in the bottom of a dish in which 
milk has been standing. Such a deposit is a sign of 
careless handling at the dairy. 

Glass can be cleaned much more readily than tin. 
For this reason it is better to buy milk that is delivered 
in glass bottles. As soon as milk is delivered, it should 
be placed in the ice box or in the coolest place in the 
house. A dish containing milk should not be left 
uncovered, except when in actual use on the table. 

Souring Milk. — It is natural for milk to sour when 
left some time in a warm place. To keep milk from 
souring, dishonest dealers sometimes, in warm weather, 
put certain drugs in it. The use of drugs for this pur- 
pose is forbidden by law, since milk containing them 
may be injurious. If milk does not sour after being 
left for some hours in a warm place, it is a sign that 
drugs have been used in it. We should be very careful 
not to buy such milk, especially when there are little 
children in the family. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 39 

No matter who is using the milk, it is well to be very 
particular about its care. If there is a baby in the 
house, extra pains should be taken. Thousands of 
these helpless infants die each year because of impure 
and carelessly handled milk. 

Our Milk Dealer. — It is important to know three 
things about the one from whom we buy milk. First, 
that he is clean. Second, that his cow stables are kept 
neat and clean, and likewise his helpers. Third, that 
he has a tidy milk house, with plenty of ice to keep the 
milk cool, and a large supply of hot water with which 
to clean utensils that have been used in handling the 
milk. A visit costing but a few cents carfare will often 
give us this information. This is indeed but a small 
thing, yet it might easily save the life or health of a 
precious child. 

Skimmed Milk. — The part of milk that is left after 
the cream has been taken off is called skimmed milk. 
Although only a very little fat is left in skimmed milk, 
it still has the other components, and so is a useful 
food. Its cost is usually less than half that of pure 
milk. Families who cannot afford much of the latter 
will find skimmed milk an inexpensive and useful food. 

Condensed Milk. — Condensed milk is made as fol- 
lows. First the water is evaporated. Then the re- 
maining components are heated to a high temperature 
to kill all bacteria. Some sugar is added, and it is 



40 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

sealed up in cans. In these it is sent long distances 
and does not spoil. Much use is made of condensed 
milk in regions where but few cows are kept. 

Butter and Buttermilk. — Butter is made by churning 
cream, and so is composed mostly of fat and water. 
It is an excellent food, and one all should try to like. 
Buttermilk is what is left of the churned cream after 
the butter has been removed. It is a refreshing and 
healthful drink. 

Cheese. — Cheese is made from sour milk. The 
kinds and the cost depend upon the amount of cream 
that is left in the milk, — the more cream, the greater 
the cost. Cheese is rich in food elements, but is diffi- 
cult for many to digest. On this account only a small 
piece should, as a rule, be eaten at a meal; some pre- 
fer not to eat cheese at all. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Pure milk contains all the necessary building and fuel 
components, and so is a most valuable food. In some 
diseases it is the best food for the sick person to use for days, 
and even weeks at a time. It is important to cultivate a 
liking for milk, or at least not to dislike it. 

2. It is much better to buy milk that is delivered in 
bottles than that which is carried from house to house in 
cans. 

3. As soon as milk is delivered, it should be put in the 
coolest place in the house, and kept there except when in 
use. A cool temperature keeps bacteria from multiplying 
rapidly in milk. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 41 

4. No one who is exposed to scarlet fever and similar 
diseases should in any way help in preparing milk for sale. 

QUESTIONS 

1. About what part of milk is water? 

2. Why is milk a most valuable food? 

3. About what part of the milk should cream be? 

4. Mention three ways in which you can tell whether 
milk is pure. 

5. What causes milk to sour? 

6. Mention two ways in which bacteria may be kept 
from multiplying in milk. 

7. State some ways in which great pains should be taken 
in handling milk. 

8. Tell the use of ice in a dairy; of hot water. 

9. How do dishonest dealers prevent the souring of 
milk in warm weather? 

10. Why should homes in which there is a baby be 
especially careful as to the purity and source of the milk? 

11. Tell what is said of skimmed milk. 

12. How is condensed milk prepared? 

13. Of what is butter mostly composed? 

14. What is said of buttermilk? 

15. From what is cheese made? 

16. Why should only a little cheese usually be eaten at 
a meal? 



CHAPTER IX 



THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 



EGGS, MEAT, AND FISH 

Egg Components. — The white of an egg is largely 
proteid, and the yolk is well stored with fat. Besides 

being about seven-tenths 
water, the inside of an egg 
also has some valuable min- 
eral salts. 

Digestion of Eggs. — Eggs 
are easily digested, and, like 
milk, are among the most 
useful of foods. Soft-cooked 
eggs are more readily di- 
gested than are hard-cooked. 
Coddled, soft-poached, and 
soft-boiled are among the 
most digestible forms in 
which eggs are prepared, and fried eggs are among 
the least readily digested. When an egg is placed 
in boiling water and left a few minutes off the stove, 
it is called a coddled egg. This is the best way to pre- 
pare them for little children or invalids. 

42 



. IF'^- ^^B 


'. Wk Water M . 


WL £j -otei?> Mm 


iBkk **9E 


BUfa j^Sf 



Graphic composition of an egg. 
Ash represents the mineral salts. 



EGGS, MEAT, AND FISH 43 

Keeping Eggs Fresh. — The shell of an egg is porous, 
and so water from its inside is evaporated through the 
shell. Bacteria can also pass through the shell to the 
inside of the egg. Cool air takes up water less readily 
than warm air. The cooler air. is, the less rapidly 
bacteria can multiply in it. For both of these reasons 
eggs should be kept in the coolest place in the house, 
if they are to remain fit for use. 

Because eggs are such nutritious (nu-trish' us) food 
and so easily digested, they are often fed to the sick. 
Now the fresher the eggs, the pleasanter they are to 
the taste, and the better food they make. When an 
egg is broken, if it is fresh, the yolk will hold together 
well; but if it is stale, the yolk will spread apart. 

Components and Digestion of Meats. — Meat contains 
fat, proteid, water, and mineral salts. Chicken and 
mutton are among the most easily digested meats. 
Beef and lamb are both much used and not hard to 
digest. Veal and pork are among the most difficult 
meats to digest. Dried beef is not as easy to digest as 
fresh beef. Salted and smoked pork (ham and bacon) 
is more easily digested than fresh pork. Indeed, boiled 
ham and crisply fried bacon are often fed to invalids. 

How to tell Bad Meat. — Veal that has been killed 
too young is called " bob " veal. It can be told by 
its flabby flesh and bluish color. It is not fit for food. 
Any meat should feel dry and firm after being kept in 



44 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

a cool place; if it is wet and flabby, it is probably 
not good. Bad pork is dotted with grayish white 
spots. Sausage is not a safe food, because dishonest 
dealers make it from bad pork. 

Preparing Meats and Soups. — Heat hardens the 
surface of meat and thus keeps the juices from running 
out. For this reason, in cooking, meat should be placed 
in a very hot oven or over a hot flame. The heat may 
be afterward reduced, so that only the outer surface 
becomes hardened. Meat prepared in this way tastes 
better and digests more easily than when the juices are 
allowed to escape and the fibers to harden all through. 

In making soups from meat, it is well to draw out 
all the juice possible. Therefore soup meat is placed in 
cold water and left standing for hours over a slow fire. 
Meat is thought to be the most readily digested when 
it is rare broiled or roasted. Pork, however, should 
always be well done, since it often contains injurious 
worms, called trichince, which are too small to be seen. 

Fish. — Like meat, fish is well supplied with proteid, 
fat, water, and mineral salts. Fish are not good if the 
odor is bad, or if the flesh feels soft, flabby, or spongy, 
or is of either a yellowish or a bluish color. Should the 
water in which fish is washed or boiled blacken silver, 
it is likely to be poisonous. 

Fish is best when boiled or baked, and in cooking 
it should be at once put into a very hot place. Fish 



EGGS, MEAT, AND FISH 



45 




46 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

is likely to be more wholesome in summer than in 
winter, since after thawing, poisons sometimes develop 
in it. Salmon and other fish are put up in tin cans. 
After these are opened, they should not be left in the 
can or long exposed to the air. When they are left 
in this way, they sometimes become unwholesome. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Eggs are one of the most valuable of foods. It is well 
to form a liking for eggs, because they are often very bene- 
ficial in severe sickness. 

2. Eggs are an excellent food for breakfast or lunch. 
Even in winter, when they often cost forty-five or fifty 
cents a dozen, it is better to eat eggs at these meals than 
meat. 

3. Some people think they must eat meat to be strong. 
This is not true, because there are many strong people who 
do not eat meat at all. Other foods have the same building 
and fuel components. 

4. There are many who eat too much meat. Unless one 
is working at hard physical labor, it is better not to eat 
meat more than once a day. 

5. Either meat or fish that has a bad taste or odor before 
or after cooking should not be eaten. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell what useful food components an egg contains. 

2. What are coddled eggs? What i& said of fried eggs? 

3. Why should eggs be kept in the coolest place in the 
house? 

4. How can one tell whether an egg is stale? 

5. Tell all you can that is said about eggs. 



EGGS, MEAT, AND EISH 47 

6. Name two meats that are among the most easy to 
digest; two that are among the most difficult. 

7. How may bad meat be told? 

8. Why is sausage not a safe food? 

9. Tell what is said about cooking meats; about pre- 
paring soups. 

10. Why should pork always be cooked well done? 

11. What meats are most readily digested? 

12. What is said of fried meats? 

13. Tell all you can remember that is said about meats 
and their preparation for food. 

14. Why is fish valuable food? 

15. When is fish unfit for use? 

16. Tell what is said about canned fish. 



CHAPTER X 
THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

GRAINS AND GRAIN FOODS 

Wheat. — Of the grains wheat is the most used as 
food in this country. About three-fifths of wheat is 
starch, one-eighth proteid, and one-seventh water. 
Wheat also has very small parts of sugar and fat, and 
is well supplied with mineral salts. 

Corn and Oatmeal. — Corn has less proteid than 
wheat, and more than twice as much fat; but it is less 
readily digested. Oatmeal contains about three times 
as much fat, twice as much mineral salts, and only a 
little less proteid than wheat. Oatmeal should be 
cooked a long time. When thoroughly cooked, it is 
an excellent food, especially in winter. 

Rice. — Rice has quite a little more starch than 
wheat and nearly as much fat, but only about half the 
amount of proteid. It is often fed to invalids because 
it is readily digested. In several countries of Asia 
rice is the principal food. Since rice has but little fat 
and proteid, it should be eaten with foods that supply 
these necessary elements. 

48 



GRAINS AND GRAIN FOODS 



49 



Keeping Flour and Bread. — Flour and meal should 
be kept in a dry place, since bacteria, called mold, 
develop in that which is moist. After bread has been 
baked, it should be aired, and then placed in a tin box 




First rising of bread dough ; taking the 
temperature of the water. 



Kneading bread. 



or earthen jar. Such dishes help to keep bread moist, 
and to prevent mold from spoiling it. 

Digestion of Flour Foods. — The following are some 
good facts to remember about our daily bread. That 
which is a day or more old is more readily digestible 
than newly baked bread. Well-done bread is more 
easily digested than that which is soggy. Toast is 
the form of bread that is the most readily digested. 



50 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

For this reason it is often fed to invalids. Crackers are 
a wholesome form of flour food. One good thing about 
both toast and crackers is that neither can be readily- 
swallowed until fairly well chewed. 

Biscuits, muffins, dumplings, and the various forms 
of hot bread are not readily digested, because their 
starch has not been thoroughly cooked. Persons with 
weak digestion should eat them but rarely, if at all. 

Pancakes, doughnuts, pies, and cakes are all foods 
that we should eat in but small amounts. Often their 
starch has not been long enough cooked to be readily 
digestible. Then, too, being soft in texture, they are 
likely to be swallowed before they are well chewed. 
Since all grain foods contain much starch, they need to 
be well chewed. This is especially true of such rich 
foods as pie and cake. 

All girls should learn to make good bread. With a 
patent bread mixer to use in kneading the dough, this 
can be done more quickly and with less bother than it 
formerly could. Home-made bread should be cleaner 
and more wholesome than that which is bought at the 
store. It also costs less. 

Breakfast Foods. — Many breakfast foods are made 
from grain. Usually they are wholesome and readily 
digested, because they are thoroughly cooked. Those 
that are dry enough to compel thorough chewing are 
especially good. 



GRAINS AND GRAIN FOODS 51 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Flour, corn meal, oatmeal, and rice are among the 
principal grain foods. All are rich in starch, and have some 
proteid and valuable mineral salts, but little fat. 

2. Foods made from flour and meal need especially thor- 
ough chewing because they contain so much starch. 

3. Newly baked bread is not so readily digested as bread 
a day or more old. Toast is the most readily digested form 
of bread. 

4. Children often spoil their good health and good looks 
by eating too much cake, pie, and similar foods. 

QUESTIONS 

1. About what part of wheat is starch? proteid? 

2. What other food components in wheat? 

3. Compare corn with wheat; oatmeal with wheat. 

4. What is said of rice as food? 

5. Tell the best way to keep flour or meal. 

6. Why are biscuits, muffins, etc., not so readily digested 
as bread? 

7. What is said of pancakes, doughnuts, pies, and cakes? 

8. Why is home-made bread better than that which is 
bought at the store? 

9. What is said of " breakfast foods" ? 



CHAPTER XI 

THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 

OTHER VEGETABLE FOODS 

Peas and Beans. — Of the vegetables (veg'e-ta-blz) 
commonly used peas and beans have the greatest food 
value. When ripened and dried, about three-fifths 
of each is starch and one-fifth proteid. About one- 
eighth is water. Both also contain valuable mineral 
salts and a very small amount of fat. When green, 
peas and beans have not nearly so large a supply of 
the useful food elements, and when canned, they have 
still less. 

Unfortunately the starch and proteid of peas and 
beans are surrounded by a tough fiber which is difficult 
to digest. For this reason, people with poor digestion 
should eat them but very little, and some should avoid 
them altogether. It is also well for any one who is ill 
not to eat them. 

Ripened and dried peas and beans should be allowed 
to soak in water several hours before they are cooked. 
They should also be cooked for a long time. After 
such preparation, much of the indigestible part can be 

52 



OTHER VEGETABLE FOODS 53 

removed by straining. From what is left, a broth 
can be made that is nutritious and not difficult to 
digest. 

Potatoes. — Perhaps no vegetable is more often 
served at meals than the potato, although it is about 
three-fourths water. Of the remaining one-fourth, the 
greater part is starch. It also has valuable mineral 
salts and a very small part of fat, but little or none of 
the proteid which helps to make peas and beans so 
rich in food value. 

Some of the food elements are lost in cooking pota- 
toes, if they are not put at once in a very hot place. 
For this reason, the oven should be very hot for baking 
them, and they should be placed in boiling water if 
they are to be boiled. They should not be soaked in 
water before cooking. Baked potatoes are the most 
readily digested. Potatoes that are moist and soggy 
after being cooked are not so readily digested as those 
that are dry and mealy. 

Other Vegetables. — Other garden vegetables are 
valuable chiefly for their mineral salts. Often they are 
composed of eight or nine tenths water, and the re- 
mainder is made up of mineral salts and very small 
parts of starch, proteid, and fat. Beets are well sup- 
plied with sugar. 

All green vegetables are thought to be good for the 
blood. Spinach (spin'aj), dandelions, and rhubarb 



54 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



are also prized for their good effect on the liver. Cel- 
ery, onions, and carrots, asparagus (as-par'a-giis), 
and squash are all especially good vegetables. Indeed, 
many children who eat no vegetables but potatoes 
would be both healthier and handsomer if they would 
eat freely of some of the others that have been men- 
tioned. 




Protefcf 
Adh 




Profeh 




Starc/tfat 
Sugar 

Prote/d 
As/? 



Showing composition of potato, carrot, and cabbage. Ash represents the 
mineral salts. 

Nuts. — Nuts are composed of from one-fourth to 
three-fifths fat. They also have about as much pro- 
teid as peas and beans, besides mineral salts. Some 
nuts are well supplied with starch and sugar. Like 
peas and beans, nuts are difficult to digest. They 
should always be thoroughly chewed. Almonds, pea- 
nuts, and English walnuts are among the richest in 
food value. Chestnuts, hickory nuts, and others com- 



OTHER VEGETABLE FOODS 



55 



monly found in this country are also well supplied 
with the useful food elements. 

Fruit. — Fruit is made up mostly of water and a small 
part of sugar. On this account it has little building or 










Nutting. 

fuel value, but it is highly prized as food because of its 
delicious taste and the good effect of its mineral salts 
upon the digestive organs. Both unripe and decayed 
fruits are harmful and should not be eaten. Canned 
fruits are pleasant to the taste, and may digest more 



56 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

easily than fresh fruit, but the good effect of the min- 
ral salts is often lost in the cooking. 

Invalids can often digest orange juice when the pulp 
might not agree with them. Baked apples may be 
good food for those who cannot digest the uncooked 
fruit. Bananas may be made more readily digestible 
by scraping off the fibrous part just under the skin. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Peas and beans are well supplied with both starch and 
proteid. They are difficult to digest and should not be 
eaten by invalids. 

2. Potatoes are well supplied with starch and mineral 
salts, but have little of the other food elements. They 
should be eaten with butter or gravy to furnish the fat, and 
lean meat or eggs to supply the needed proteid. 

3. Nuts are well supplied with fat, proteid, and the other 
food elements. They should be thoroughly chewed and 
eaten in small amounts since much of the fiber is indi- 
gestible. 

4. Fruits, as well as many garden vegetables, are com- 
posed largely of water, but are very valuable foods because 
of the good effect of their mineral salts upon digestion. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What causes peas and beans to be difficult to digest? 

2. Tell what is said of the food value of peas and beans. 

3. Describe how a readily digestible broth can be pre- 
pared from peas and beans. 

4. What is the chief food element in potatoes? 

5. Tell the best way to bake potatoes; to boil potatoes. 



OTHER VEGETABLE FOODS 



57 



6. Which digest the more easily, baked or boiled potatoes? 
mealy or soggy potatoes? 

7. Name some vegetables that are said to have a good 
effect upon the blood. 

8. Mention some vegetables that stimulate the liver. 

9. Tell some of the food elements found in nuts. 

10. Name some nuts that are the richest in food value. 

11. Why is fruit highly prized as food? 

12. What kind of fruit is quite sure to be harmful? 

13. Tell what is said of canned fruits. 






CHAPTER XII 



THE STORY OF FOOD IN BODY BUILDING 



DRINKS 

Cocoa and Chocolate. — Besides water and milk 
the liquids most commonly drunk at meals are coffee, 
tea, cocoa, and chocolate. Of these only the latter 
two have any real food value. They are both made 

from cocoa seeds 
which are rich in 
fat, and are also 
well supplied with 
proteid and 
starch. Cocoa 
contains less fat 
than chocolate, 
and is more read- 
ily digested. 

Cocoa plant. Coffee an( j Tea 

— From the pleasing aroma of coffee and tea, many 
think them rich in the useful food elements. This is 
not true. Both are stimulants, but furnish no build- 
ing or fuel materials except the milk and sugar that 

58 




DRINKS 59 

may be used for flavoring. A stimulant is something 
that increases the activity of the brain, heart, or some 
other organ for a time. Many medicines are stimu- 
lants. As a rule, it is unsafe to take any stimulant un- 
less advised to do so by a doctor. 

Coffee and Bread a Poor Breakfast. — Toast and milk 
only, or toast and cocoa, might be eaten for breakfast, 
and one would be fairly well strengthened for a morn- 
ing's work. But toast and coffee, or toast and tea, fur- 
nish altogether too little strength for long-continued 
work or play. School physicians often find that the 
usual breakfast of pale, weak, nervous children is toast 
or bread and coffee. A few breakfasts of the right sort 
quickly start such children on the road to health and 
strength. We should care too much for our bodies to 
allow them to start a morning's work so poorly fur- 
nished with food that gives strength. 

Children and Tea or Coffee. — All physicians agree 
that children should not drink either tea or coffee. No 
little folk who want to be as strong and rosy-cheeked 
as they can will be so foolish as to use either of these 
stimulants. Besides water, the very best drink for 
them is milk, and the next best is cocoa. They are 
the best, too, not only because they supply the food 
elements the body needs, but also because they taste 
exactly as well or better when we have got into the 
habit of using them. 



• I 



60 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Alcoholic Drinks not Food. — Beer, wine, brandy, 
whisky, and other alcoholic drinks are also stimulants 
and not food. Some people think these liquors help 
them to work better. Years ago Benjamin Franklin 
proved to some London printers that water drinkers 
work faster and lift more than beer drinkers can. 
To-day athletic teams in this country are not allowed 
to use alcoholic drinks during their training season. 
Why not? Because years of experience have proved 
that the athletes who do without such drinks can be 
depended upon for the best work. 

Alcohol and Warmth. — Some people imagine that 
alcoholic drinks help to make them warm. They do 
cause more blood to come to the surface of the body, 
and so they seem to increase one's warmth. In fact, 
however, heat radiates from the surface of the body 
more quickly than it otherwise would, and so in the 
end they are colder. Explorers have found that they 
can endure the intense cold of the polar regions far 
better without alcoholic drinks. Surely no testimony 
on this question could be stronger than theirs. Hot 
milk, cocoa, hot lemonade, and good nourishing food 
are the best heat producers. 

Alcohol and Health. — There are some who think 
that alcoholic drinks aid in the digestion of other foods. 
On the contrary, there is good proof that they retard 
digestion. And that is not their only bad effect, for 



DRINKS 



61 



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62 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

the heart, arteries, liver, and kidneys are all diseased 
in time through their use. Physicians have also found 
out another important fact. Persons who do not use 
such drinks are much more likely to get well from seri- 
ous diseases than those who use them. They are also 
much more likely to recover from surgical operations. 

Alcohol and the Brain. — The worst result from such 
drinks, however, is that they so affect a person's brain 
that he loses control both of his muscles and his will. 
Because of the lost control of his muscles, he staggers. 
On account of the lost will power, he may be brutal or 
commit crime. 

Alcohol and the Appetite. — Of course no one expects 
to become a drunkard at the time the habit of using 
liquor is started. If a person could look into the future 
and see himself like the staggering objects he looks 
upon with pity or contempt, nothing could hire him 
to start. " They must have been very weak," he 
thinks. " I am too strong ever to become like that." 
But in this lies the most dread danger of alcohol. It 
so affects the tissues of the body as to create an irresist- 
ible (ir 7 re-zist'i-bl) appetite for itself. Not only the 
weak and ignorant, but also many of the strongest and 
best educated have become its victims. 

Alcohol and Usefulness. — The records of prisons 
show that drink was the beginning of the disgrace 
of most of their inmates. Insane asylums and homes 



DRINKS 63 

for deserted children record the same sad story. The 
charity societies of cities number the wives and chil- 
dren of drunkards among the most numerous of their 
charges. 

A census of the unemployed in any city would show 
how much the strong drink habit has to do with the 
loss of positions. Workmen need to be on time and 
in the places where they are wanted each day. They 
have to be trustworthy, and both reliable and clear- 
headed in case of an emergency (e-mer' jen-sy). 
Drinking, carousing, and the loss of sleep that attend 
them, prevent one from being his best in any of these 
respects. Indeed, this is so generally recognized that 
in many places requiring special honesty and ability, 
only men who do not use alcoholic drinks are em- 
ployed. 

Fortunately the sentiment against using intoxicating 
drinks is rapidly growing. No doubt the terrible loss 
of property and manhood resulting from the habit is 
being more plainly understood. The pathos of sad- 
faced mothers and pinched, poverty-stricken children 
is also having its effect. The chief reason, however, 
is the increasing desire to achieve the greatest possible 
joy and usefulness in life. The best possible health of 
body and mind is essential to the greatest happiness 
and highest service. Thoughtful people are realizing 
more strongly every day that burdening the body with 



64 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

liquors that have no food value is, to say the least, a 
serious hindrance and handicap. The younger we are 
when strongly impressed with this great truth, the 
happier and more useful we shall be. 

History tells how nobly our country aided Cuba 
when Spain was causing such ruin and suffering in that 
beautiful island. How proud even very young boys 
would be to fight in such a cause! Alcoholic drinks 
produce far more loss of property and suffering in our 
country every year than Spain caused in Cuba. No 
boy or girl is too young to battle against this greatest 
foe of home and country. The best way to be good 
fighters in this splendid cause is never to use intoxicat- 
ing drinks ourselves. The next best is to do what we 
can to discourage their use by others. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Coffee and tea are simply stimulants and not food. 
Children should not drink either, since they cause nervous- 
ness and other weakness. 

2. A breakfast of coffee or tea and toast or bread does 
not furnish enough strength for a morning's work. Such 
breakfasts are the cause of much ill health. 

3. Cocoa and chocolate are both rich in the useful food 
elements. Cocoa is more readily digested than chocolate. 

4. Alcoholic drinks are simply stimulants and not food. 
They cause drunkenness; create an appetite for themselves; 
and lead to crime, disgrace, poverty, and unhappiness. 

5. Alcoholic drinks do not help people to work better, 
nor do they aid in warming any one who is cold. They retard 



BRINKS 65 

digestion, and in time cause serious diseases of the heart, 
arteries, liver, kidneys, and other organs. 

6. The use of liquor is the most frequent cause of the loss 
of work. In many positions of trust no one who uses 
intoxicating drinks can be employed. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell why cocoa and chocolate are better drinks than 
coffee and tea. 

2. What is a stimulant? Only when, as a rule, should 
stimulants be taken? 

3. Explain why coffee and toast or bread, without other 
food, make a poor breakfast. 

4. Besides water, what are the two best drinks for chil- 
dren? 

5. Why are athletic teams not allowed to use alcoholic 
drinks during their training season? 

6. Give two good reasons to prove that alcoholic drinks 
do not aid in making any one who is cold, warmer. 

7. What effect have alcoholic drinks on digestion? 
What organs of the body do they injure? 

8. Tell the cause of drunkenness and its effects. 

9. Tell why it is unsafe to begin the liquor-drinking 
habit. 

10. What do the records of prison's, orphans' homes ; 
insane asylums, and charity societies show? 

11. Why does the strong drink habit cause the loss of 
work? 

12. What is causing the rapid growth in sentiment 
against the use of intoxicating drinks? 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE CHIEF MISTAKES IN THE CHOICE OF FOODS 

Candy. — The chief mistake many children make, as 
far as food is concerned, is in eating too much candy. 
It is sold so cheap and is so temptingly displayed in 
store windows. Then, too, it is the present that visitors, 
and even members of the family, most commonly give, 
since children are known to be so fond of it. 

Of course no visitor or relative would thinkingly 
injure a child's health. Few children would willingly 
spend pennies for candy, if they knew that they were 
thus helping to make themselves less fond of play and 
study, and less able to do their best at anything. The 
thought that they were aiding in bringing about head- 
aches and other discomfort, or even that they were 
helping to make both their teeth and complexion less 
beautiful, would be enough to prompt most children 
to better sense. 

The great trouble is that neither children nor their 
elders stop to consider these facts. Even if others 
forget, let us remember, then, that while a little sweet 
for dessert at meals is good food, eating candy between 



THE CHIEF MISTAKES IN THE CHOICE OF FOODS 67 

meals, or eating much candy at any time, is one of the 
surest ways to lose health and good looks. Think of 
trading the satisfaction of being and looking and doing 
our best, all the time, for the few moments 7 pleasure 
that is got from eating sweets ! Surely few will know- 
ingly be so foolish. 

Breakfast. — The bad practice of eating only toast 
or bread and coffee for breakfast has already been 
spoken of. A breakfast of pancakes, butter, and sirup 
or sugar is also a poor one. The pancakes, as we have 
learned, are not readily digested. Then such a break- 
fast furnishes too much sugar and too little proteid. 
Eggs and toast or bread and a glass of milk, with some 
breakfast food, fruit, and a cup of cocoa to satisfy 
the craving for sweet, make the best breakfast. 

Luncheon. — Children often take to school a luncheon 
of bread and butter with jam or jelly, pickles, cake, and 
a bottle of cold coffee. Egg, lettuce, or meat sand- 
wiches for the hearty part of the meal, fruit and a little 
candy, nuts, or cake for the dessert, with milk in place 
of the coffee, will please the taste, and furnish materials 
to develop both strength and beauty of the body. If one 
is at a school where a cup of broth can be bought, it is 
an addition well worth while. For luncheon or supper 
at home, hot soup, followed by a salad with bread and 
butter, and fruit, nuts, and cocoa for dessert, make a 
meal that is delicious and strength-giving as well. 



68 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Salads. — Much can be said in praise of the simple 
salads. A most delicious one is made of lettuce, celery, 
fruit, and nuts, with olive oil or cream dressing. Salad 
of lettuce and eggs alone with dressing is both nutri- 
tious and much relished, and those of potato and va- 
rious vegetables are also well liked. All are inexpen- 




Children lunching. 

sive, and may well be used in place of meat at luncheon 
or supper. Baked potatoes and macaroni with cheese 
are also an excellent substitute for meat at these 
meals. 

Foods to Prevent Constipation. — Olive oil, too, 
deserves a regular place at meals. Not only is it a 



THE CHIEF MISTAKES IN THE CHOICE OF FOODS 69 

good fuel food, but it is also an excellent aid in keep- 
ing the bowels from becoming constipated. Plenty of 
fresh fruit, stewed prunes, and such vegetables as spin- 
ach and onions will also help in keeping the bowels 
in a healthful state. Graham and whole wheat bread 
are also excellent aids to the same end. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. It is not alone the taste of food, but its value to our 
bodies, that should be considered in preparing meals. 

2. It is not the amount of food that we eat, but what we 
digest, that really counts for warmth and strength to our 
bodies. 

3. There are plenty of simple foods that are rich in body- 
building and fuel materials, and at the same time readily 
made use of by our digestive organs. 

4. As a rule, fried foods are difficult to digest. 

5. By using a little judgment in our choice of foods, 
a free movement of the bowels can be had daily without the 
use of medicines. This will count much toward keeping well 
and strong. 

QUESTIONS 

1. How do children often help to make themselves less 
fond of play and study and less able to do their best at any- 
thing? 

2. Tell one of the surest ways to lose health and good 
looks. 

3. Why do pancakes, butter, and sirup make a poor 
breakfast? 

4. Tell some foods which furnish a breakfast that will 
both nourish the body well, and satisfy the craving for sweet. 






70 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

5. Mention some foods that make a poor luncheon; 
some that make an appetizing and nutritious luncheon. 

6. Tell what is said of the food value of salads. 

7. Give two important facts about the food value of 
olive oil. 

8. Mention several foods that aid in keeping the bowels 
from becoming constipated. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE STORY OF AIR IN BODY BUILDING 

THE NEED FOR PURE AIR 

Air and Food compared. — From babyhood we have 
heard it said, " You must eat to be strong. " We 
can plainly see, smell, and taste food, and, as a rule, 
can judge whether it is fit for use. Our meals have 
to be prepared, and we must make some effort in eat- 
ing them. Naturally (nat'u-ral-y), then, the fact 
that food is very necessary to our bodies is well 
understood. 

Air is breathed in and out of our lungs several times 
a minute. We cannot handle it as we can food, nor 
do our senses so readily tell whether it is fit for use. 
It requires neither cooking nor serving. The breath- 
ing muscles work on and on, day and night, without 
any effort of the will. For these reasons many think 
little or nothing about the air they breathe. 

Value of Air. — Yet it is not hard to understand the 
great value of pure air to the body. Why is drowning 
not possible while a person's nose is above water? 
Simply because he can breathe. The air supply is 



72 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

cut off when the nostrils go under water, and life is 
soon ended, if they are kept there. Close the mouth 
tightly, and at the same time press the nostrils firmly 
enough together to stop the current of air. Why must 
one of these air passages soon be opened? Because 
the body can be comfortable only a few seconds with- 
out a fresh supply of air. 

Now if we had to eat food every few seconds of the 
day, we should certainly be careful to use that which 
would be best for our bodies. Very likely we should 
also take the greatest pains to have it just as clean and 
pure as possible. We should surely be just as careful 
about the air we breathe. Without doubt some good 
sense in this respect may add much to the beauty and 
usefulness of our bodies, as well as to our health and 
happiness. 

Pure Air. — All air looks about the same to us. 
Yet, as to fitness for use in our bodies, it differs greatly. 
Our bodies need pure air. Besides some watery vapor, 
pure air is composed of the three gases, nitrogen, oxy- 
gen, and carbon dioxide (kar'bon di-ox'id) which is 
often called carbonic acid gas. 

A little less than four-fifths of pure air is nitrogen. 
About one-fifth is oxygen. Only about one part to 
every twenty-five hundred parts of air is carbon dioxide. 
The two gases that we need most to learn about are 
oxygen and carbon dioxide. 



PURE AIR 73 

Oxygen. — Oxygen is the element of air that unites 
with the carbon in other substances to cause burning or 
combustion (kom-bus'chun). Why does opening the 
lower draft of a stove or furnace make the fire burn more 
briskly? Because more oxygen reaches the fire pot 
to unite with the carbon of the coal or wood. If the 
drafts are kept closed, or if the ashes prevent oxygen 
from reaching the fuel, the fire soon goes out. 

Oxygen is also constantly uniting with the carbon 
of metal and wood that are exposed to air. This 
union, however, is slow and does not cause flame as it 
does in the stove or the furnace. It simply makes the 
metal rust or the wood decay. The oxygen of the 
atmosphere is diluted or weakened by the presence of 
so much nitrogen. If it were not, oxygen would unite 
with carbon too briskly, and cause fires where they were 
not wanted. 

Of what benefit to us is the oxygen of the air breathed 
into our lungs ? It unites with the carbon in the tissues 
of our bodies, to produce the heat that keeps us warm 
and the energy that gives us the power of motion. 
This is one of the reasons why we cannot get along 
without air a single moment. 

Carbon Dioxide. — When oxygen unites with carbon 
in a stove or furnace, besides heat there is produced 
a disagreeable gas which we are careful to have pass up 
the chimney. The union of oxygen and the tissues of 



74 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

our bodies, besides causing heat, also produces a gas 
called carbon dioxide. 

We have already learned that pure air contains about 
one part of carbon dioxide to every twenty-five hundred 
parts of air. Two parts of this gas to twenty-five hun- 
dred parts of air is the most that it is safe to have in any 
air we breathe. Without doubt five and one-half 
parts of carbon dioxide to twenty-five hundred parts of 
air is dangerous to breathe. By thinking how quickly 
five can be counted, and how long it would take to 
count twenty-five hundred, one can readily understand 
how very small an amount of carbon dioxide will make 
the air of a room injurious to breathe. 

The Air Breathed Out. — The blood carries oxygen 
from our lungs to every part of the body. It also brings 
back carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs, from 
whence it is carried in the air breathed out. Indeed, 
the air breathed out contains one-fifth less oxygen, one 
hundred times more carbon dioxide, and twice as much 
watery vapor as the air breathed in. Along with this 
watery vapor, many particles of dead tissue also come. 
These have an offensive smell and may contain disease 
germs. 

An exchange of carbon dioxide, watery vapor, and 
fetid matter for oxygen takes place every time human 
beings or other animals breathe. Oil lamps, gas jets, 
candles, in fact, any artificial lights in common use but 



PURE AIR 75 

electric lights, consume much oxygen and produce car- 
bon dioxide. So one can readily see that the air of any 
room may become unfit for breathing, unless pains are 
taken to prevent it. How this may be done, we shall 
see in the next chapter. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. We can get along but a few seconds without air. The 
purer the air, the better it is for our bodies. 

2. Besides some watery vapor, pure air is composed of 
about four-fifths nitrogen, one-fifth oxygen, and one part 
carbon dioxide to every twenty-five hundred parts of air. 

3. Oxygen unites with the tissues of our bodies to produce 
heat and energy. 

4. The blood takes oxygen from the air breathed into 
our lungs, and carries it to all parts of the body. 

5. Besides causing heat and energy, the combustion of 
oxygen and the tissues of the body produces carbon dioxide. 
The blood takes this gas back to the lungs from whence it 
is carried in the air breathed out. 

6. Two parts of carbon dioxide in twenty-five hundred 
parts of air is the most that it is safe to have in the air we 
breathe. Five and one-half parts of carbon dioxide to twenty- 
five hundred parts of air is dangerous to breathe. 

7. The air breathed out contains one-fifth less oxygen, 
one hundred times more carbon dioxide, and twice as much 
watery vapor as the air breathed in. 

8. The watery vapor of the air breathed out from the 
lungs contains particles of dead tissue. These have an of- 
fensive smell, and may contain disease germs. 

9. All artificial lights except electric, consume oxygen 
and give out carbon dioxide. 



76 THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell why it is natural to think of food as necessary 
to the body. 

2. Explain why many think little about the air they 
breathe. 

3. Give some proofs that our bodies must have air 
every moment. 

4. Besides watery vapor, what three gases does air 
contain? 

5. Pure air contains what part of nitrogen? of oxygen? 
of carbon dioxide? 

6. How is heat produced in a stove or furnace? 

7. What may cause a fire in a stove or furnace to go out? 

8. Tell what causes rust of metals and decay of wood. 

9. What dilutes oxygen? What would be the effect if 
it were not diluted? 

10. How are heat and energy produced in our bodies? 

11. What poisonous gas is also produced by the com- 
bustion of oxygen and carbon in our bodies? 

12. What is the greatest amount of carbon dioxide that 
it is safe to have in the air we breathe? 

13. What amount of carbon dioxide is it dangerous to have 
in the air that we breathe? 

14. What carries oxygen from the lungs to the body, and 
brings back carbon dioxide to the lungs? 

15. Tell how the air breathed out from the lungs differs 
from the air breathed in. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE STORY OF AIR IN BODY BUILDING 

VENTILATION 

We know that oxygen is being constantly used up 
and carbon dioxide produced by combustion in the 
world about us. Every time human beings or other 
animals breathe, oxygen is taken from the air, and 
carbon dioxide is given back. It is dangerous to 
breathe air that contains only five and one-half parts 
of carbon dioxide to twenty-five hundred parts of air. 
How does it happen that the air, in great cities at 
least, does not become unfit for our use? 

In the first place, plants and trees in daytime take 
in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Secondly, 
when air is warmed, it expands and becomes lighter. 
Naturally, then, it rises, and cooler air rushes in to take 
its place. Out of doors this shifting and changing of 
great masses of warm and cool air are constantly taking 
place. This, together with the vastness of the atmos- 
phere, causes out-of-door air, as a rule, to be pure. 

It is air inside our homes and other buildings in which 
we work or study, that we must take pains to keep 

77 



78 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF TEE BODY 

pure. In warm weather, this can be easily done 
through open doors and windows. In our bedrooms 
at night, open windows will serve this useful purpose 
in any season. Keeping a room or building supplied 
with pure air is called ventilation. 

Ventilation of Large Buildings. — In modern school- 
houses and similar buildings each room has an opening 
through which pure air is forced in cool weather, and 
another through which foul air passes out. The amount 
of pure air forced in depends upon what the room is 
used for and the number of persons it is built to seat. 
As a rule, about forty cubic feet of air per minute is 
the amount that it is planned to furnish for each 
person. When the fans and other machinery in such 
buildings work perfectly, the air supply is very satis- 
factory. 

Furnaces. — In homes, the air supply in cold weather 
often comes from the furnace. It passes from out of 
doors, or from the cellar, through the cold-air box into 
a space over the fire pot of the furnace. Being heated 
there, it expands and rises through the registers into 
the rooms above. 

The cold-air box of most furnaces is so built that 
air may be taken either from outside or from the cellar. 
Of course air from out of doors will be purer than air 
from the cellar. Wherever it is feasible, we should 
have the cold-air box of our furnace supplied from 



VENTILATION 79 

out of doors. Then, if windows in the occupied rooms 
are opened enough to insure a good circulation of air, 
we can be well satisfied with the ventilation. 

Steam and Hot Water Heating. — Some homes are 
heated by hot water or steam, which comes from the 
furnace through pipes into radiators which are in the 
various rooms. In such homes, the air of the rooms 
is heated by the radiators. No pure air supply, how- 
ever, is coming from the furnace. On this account, 
special pains must be taken to ventilate by open win- 
dows. Similar care must also be taken in rooms or 
homes that are heated by stoves. 

Stoves without Pipes. — Every stove should have a 
pipe to carry off the gas that is always produced by 
combustion. Gas stoves without such pipes are often 
sold. In rooms where such stoves are used, there 
should be an excellent circulation of pure air. Other- 
wise the atmosphere of the room will soon become 
unfit for breathing. It is far better to spend a little 
more money and buy a stove having a pipe to carry off 
the injurious gas. 

Fireplace. — A room heated by a fireplace is likely 
to be well ventilated. The air which is being heated 
by the fire expands and passes up the chimney, the 
cooler air of the room rushing in to take its place. Thus 
the atmosphere of the room is constantly kept in circu- 
lation. 



80 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



yf. 



Ventilating by Windows. — In ventilating by win- 
dows alone, it is well to have an opening both at the 
top and at the bottom. Then the 
warm air will pass out at the up- 
per opening, and cooler air will 
come in at the lower. It is far 
better to have several windows 
open in this way than to have one 
open wide. 

A device like the 
one in the illustra- 
tion on this page is 
ventilating in cold excellent f or ventila- 

weather, keeping the 

lower sash of a window tion in Very Cold 



«>> 



\°H ^ 



raised by a board. 



s50 



\Q> 



weather. This ad- 
mits air between the upper and lower 
sashes, thus avoiding drafts. In all 
ventilation, care should be taken to avoid 
strong drafts, for sitting in a draft often 
causes a cold. The aim should be to 
have a free circulation of air. Usually 
this can be done without causing in- 
jurious drafts, if windows and transoms 
are wisely adjusted. 

Temperature of Living Rooms. — Not only should 
the air of occupied rooms be kept pure, but it should 
also not be allowed to become too hot or too dry. A 



•50 



Thermometer. 



VENTILATION 



81 



temperature of from 65° to 68° is the best for any room 
in which people are sitting, and it should not be allowed 
to rise above 70°. If it does, the people in the room 
are likely to feel dull and restless. Headache and other 
unpleasant feelings also often result. Then, too, one is 
apt to catch cold more easily on going out of doors, 
because the air is so much cooler than that of the room. 
Notice the thermometer of the room in which you 
are sitting. Tell 
how many de- 
grees its mercury 
registers. Take 
it in your hand, 
and, if feasible, 
through the use 
of heat and cold, 
make it register 
65°, 68°, and 70° 
in turn. You 
will be interested 
to see how 
quickly the mer- 
cury will rise and Writing the daily temperature record. 

fall to show the change in heat. 

Temperature Record. — Much poor work and bad 
conduct in school have, no doubt, been caused by too 
warm air. In every schoolroom, the thermometer 




82 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

should be examined at least once an hour, and the tem- 
perature written on the blackboard. It should be the 
duty of certain pupils to attend to this important 
record. If the temperature should be found to 
be above 68°, the atmosphere should be promptly 
cooled. Reasonably cool, pure air is one of the 
greatest aids to good attention and to successful 
school work. 

Too Dry Air. — Air that is too dry takes up moisture 
from the inside of the mouth and nose, thus causing 
soreness and colds. Every furnace has a storage place 
for water which should be filled daily. Even when 
this is kept well filled, the air which passes to the rooms 
above will often be too dry. If a small basin of water 
is kept inside the registers of the much-occupied rooms, 
the air in passing will usually take up the moisture it 
should have. A basin of water should also be used to 
furnish moisture to the air of stove-heated rooms. 
When open windows are used for ventilation, there is 
little likelihood of too dry air. 

Chief Aim of Ventilation. — The chief aim of ventila- 
tion is to provide for a circulation of pure air. When 
we are to be for some time in a room with several other 
persons, we should look out for its proper ventilation 
just as quickly as we should look for a seat. In fact, 
pure air to breathe is far more important than a com- 
fortable seat in which to sit. Standing a very long time 



VENTILATION 83 

makes one very tired, of course; but breathing impure 
air sows the seeds of discomfort and disease. 

Unclean Air. — Upon coming from out of doors into 
a poorly ventilated room that has been occupied for 
some time by several people, we at once notice the im- 
pure, ill-smelling atmosphere. Those in the room may 
not have noticed the foul air at all, for their noses be- 
came used to it, little by little. A newcomer, how- 
ever, wants to open doors and windows at once, for he 
cannot endure the disgusting air. 

Everybody shrinks at the thought of touching or 
tasting anything foul, decayed, or diseased. Yet 
many breathe air that has been made foul by waste 
particles of tissue breathed out by others, without even 
a thought of its unclean condition. 

Any one who happens to get near enough to smell 
the offensive breath of another, will quickly withdraw. 
Yet he will continue to breathe unpurified atmosphere 
containing particles that help make breath unpleasant, 
with no concern whatever as to the foul air which he is 
taking into his lungs. 

Often persons who are the most particular about 
handling unclean things they can see, are the first to 
complain of open windows on account of their fear of 
drafts. If they could see or even smell the unclean 
condition of the air, they would be the most earnest in 
asking for ventilation, with little thought of drafts. 



84 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Ventilating for Company. — It will often happen that 
too many people will be seated in a room of our homes. 
Pains should be taken to air the room thoroughly before 
the guests arrive. Then if windows are properly ar- 
ranged at the start, a good circulation can usually be 
had without injurious drafts. Sometimes a room may 
be too crowded for such an arrangement to be possible. 
In such cases windows should be opened wide, now 
and then. In these intervals the people in the rooms 
can keep from catching cold through exercise or extra 
wraps. 

Ventilating Facts worth Remembering. — The follow- 
ing should be written in our minds and never forgotten. 
No matter how clean, pure, and pleasing the persons 
who are in a room with us may be, each one is using up 
oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide and waste 
matter. In well-ventilated rooms, the air will purify 
itself. In poorly ventilated rooms, all will soon be 
breathing air containing waste tissue and possibly dis- 
ease germs from the bodies of others, to say nothing of 
the poisonous carbon dioxide. 

Here, then, is a matter about which it is worth while 
to be particular. Let a good circulation of air be the 
first thing to look out for in any room in which we are 
to remain for a long time. The lack of good ventila- 
tion should be at all times a good excuse for leaving 
any room or assembling place. Cleanliness, as well as 



VENTILATION 85 

health, will certainly furnish the best of reasons for so 
doing. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Out-of-door air is, as a rule, pure. It is indoor air 
that we should take pains to keep fresh and pure. 

2. The windows and doors of occupied rooms should be 
kept open in warm weather, to keep the air as nearly as 
possible like the out-of-door atmosphere. 

3. In both warm and cold weather our sleeping rooms 
should be ventilated by open windows. A room having two 
or more windows is always better than a room with but one 
window. 

4. In ventilating by windows, it is well to have an open- 
ing both at the top and at the bottom. Several windows 
arranged in this way are better than one or two wide open. 

5. The temperature of any occupied room, except a sleep- 
ing room, should be kept at from 65° to 68°, and should not 
be allowed to rise above 70°. 

6. Every stove should have a pipe to carry off the poison- 
ous gases produced by combustion. 

7. We cannot see, and often do not smell, the foul air 
in a poorly ventilated room; yet it may be as unfit for 
breathing as decayed food for eating or sewer water for 
drinking. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What effect does heating have upon air? 

2. What is said of the purity of outside air? 

3. Define ventilation. 

4. How may a room be well ventilated in warm weather? 

5. How should our bedrooms be ventilated in all seasons? 

6. In cold weather, what does the supply of pure air 
in homes often come from? 

7. What is said of cold-air boxes? 



86 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

8. How does a fireplace help in ventilating a room? 

9. How should a room heated by stoves be ventilated 
in cold weather? 

10. Why should all stoves used in a home or office have 
pipes connected with the chimney? 

11. What is the best temperature for an occupied room? 

12. What is the highest point the temperature should 
be allowed to reach? 

13. Tell how a temperature record should be kept in a 
schoolroom. 

14. What bad effect has too dry air? 

15. Tell how the air of occupied rooms may be kept from 
becoming too dry. 

16. Tell why it is more important to look out for the good 
ventilation of a room we enter than to look for a seat. 

17. Why do persons who have been for some time in a 
poorly ventilated room, not notice the foul air? 

18. How will the air of such a room affect a newcomer? 

19. Tell why people who are particular about unclean 
things they can see, are often not particular about the purity 
of the air they breathe. 

20. How may drafts often be avoided in ventilating a 
room? 

21. In what rooms is it well to open windows wide every 
now and then to change the air? 

22. No matter how clean, pure, and pleasing persons may 
be, in what way does their breathing affect the atmosphere 
of a room? 



CHAPTER XVI 



THE STORY OF AIR IN BODY BUILDING 



BREATHING 



We have learned some valuable facts about the use 
of pure air to our bodies. So valuable that we shall 
— it is to be hoped — 
hereafter take special pains 
to have the air we breathe 
as pure as possible. The 
important thing, now, is 
to make sure that we have 
the habit of taking an 
abundant supply of pure 
air into our lungs. " That 
is easy enough/' one 
might say. " All that is 
necessary is to keep on 
breathing. 7 ' 

Very likely that might 
be true if everybody 
breathed well; but, un- 
fortunately, such is not 
the case. Because of incorrect position, tight clothing, 

87 




a, spinal column ; 
b, gullet; c, wind- 
pipe (lower part); 
d d, windpipe (lar- 
ynx) ; e, epiglottis ; 
/, soft palate and 
uvula; k, tongue; 
I, hard palate. 



Showing portions of the nasal pas- 
sages, mouth, throat, and windpipe. 



88 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

and other causes, many people do not take as much 
air as they should into their lungs when they breathe. 
Before we consider the different ways of breathing, how- 
ever, let us get acquainted with the organs of the body 
through and into which air passes. 

The Breathing Organs. — Air comes into the nose or 
mouth, and passes through the pharynx (far'inks), 
larynx (lar'mks), trachea (tra'ke-a) or windpipe, 
bronchi (bron'ki), bronchial (bron'ki-al) tubes, and 
bronchioles (bron'ki-olz) into the air cells of the lungs. 
(See illustrations, pages 87 and 90.) The entire inner 
surface of this tract has a membrane lining which se- 
cretes a fluid called mucus (mu'kus). 

From the mucous membrane of the air passages there 
grow little hairs called cilia (sil'i-a). These aid in 
stopping dust and bacteria. The moist mucous mem- 
brane likewise stops dust and bacteria, and is said to 
make the latter harmless. When one has a cold, the 
secretion of the air passages increases in amount, being 
whitish and watery at first, but later on thicker and of 
a darker color. 

The nose has two divisions, the right nostril and the 
left nostril, that are separated by a partition (par- 
tish'tin). 

The pharynx is the large cavity at the base of the 
tongue, formed by the joining of the nose passage and 
the mouth. From the front and upper part of the 



BREATHING 89 

pharynx the Eustachian (u-sta'ki-an) tube leads to each 
middle ear. 

Tonsils. — On each side of the root of the tongue is 
an oval body called a tonsil. Its use is unknown. Ton- 
silitis (ton-sil-I'tis), a disagreeable sore throat, is caused 
by inflammation (in-flam-ma/shun) of the tonsils. Ton- 
sils sometimes become permanently enlarged, and have 
to be removed by a surgeon. 

The larynx looks like an enlargement of the upper end 
of the trachea or windpipe. It is a tube about two 
inches long, and is made of two large pieces of cartilage 
and several smaller ones. The large cartilage forms 
the " Adam's apple " which can be felt, and sometimes 
seen, in the neck just under the chin. The vocal cords 
are attached to the cartilage of the larynx. 

The glottis is the narrow, slit-like opening from the 
pharynx into the larynx. 

The epiglottis, a small, triangular lid, fastened just 
in front of the glottis, serves the useful purpose of pre- 
venting food from entering the larynx. Usually it 
is erect, and allows air to pass freely; but when food 
and drink are swallowed, it covers the larynx, even 
without our willing it. 

The trachea or windpipe is a tube about four inches 
long, extending from the larynx into the thorax or 
chest. The trachea is strengthened by a number of 
rings of cartilage. These are incomplete at the back, 






90 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



so that the esophagus may have plenty of room to 
expand when food is swallowed. 

The bronchi are the two parts into which the trachea 
divides in the chest. One of these parts alone is called 
a bronchus. 

The bronchial tubes are the branches or subdivisions 
of the bronchi. 

The bronchioles are the small divisions or branches of 



Trachea 




Showing trachea, right lung, and bronchial tubes 
of left lung. 



the bronchial 
tubes. Each 
bronchiole ends 
in a group of 
air cells. 

The lungs 
are composed 
of the bronchi, 
many bronchial 
tubes, numer- 
ous bronchi- 
oles, and thou- 
sands of aii- 
cells . The top 



or apex (a'peks) of each lung is just under the collar 
bone, and the base of each is at the base of the chest, 
and just above an important muscle called the dia- 
phragm (di'a-fram). Both lungs are covered with a 
membrane called the pleura, which also lines the 



BREATHING 



91 



chest. The walls of the air cells of the lungs are 
thin as paper and very elastic, and have a network of 
blood vessels. 

The chest cavity in which the lungs are situated is 
bounded by the ribs, spine or backbone, the sternum or 




u n 

The thorax or chest showing ribs, sternum, lungs, and heart. 

breast bone, and below by the strong muscle called the 
diaphragm. Between the ribs are the intercostal (in- 
ter-kos'tal) muscles. 



92 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 





Act of Breathing. — Breathing is caused by the alter- 
nate expansion (eks-pan'shun) and contraction (con- 
trak'shun) of the diaphragm and the intercostal mus- 
cles. The atmosphere is so 
heavy that its pressure is 
fifteen pounds to the square 
inch. When the expansion 
of the diaphragm and the 
intercostal muscles enlarges 
the chest cavity, the pres- 
sure of the outside atmos- 
phere forces enough air 
into the lungs to make them 
expand to fill the increased 
space. 
The contraction of the diaphragm and the intercostal 
muscles which follows makes the chest cavity smaller 
and so forces the air out. The illustration above 
shows the appearance of the chest cavity and dia- 
phragm both at the time air is taken into the lungs and 
when it is forced out. 

Breathing in is often spoken of as inhaling or inspir- 
ing, and the act is called inspiration (m'spi-ra'shiin). 
Breathing out is called exhaling or expiring, and the 
act is spoken of as expiration (eks r pi-ra'shun). 
Breathing in and out, or an inspiration and an expira- 
tion, constitute respiration (res'pi-ra/shun). When 



Showing positions of the dia- 
phragm, sternum, and walls of the 
abdomen in inspiration and expira- 
tion (Zuppke). 



BREATHING 93 

a doctor says that a patient's respiration is twenty, he 
means that the patient breathes in and out twenty 
times a minute. 

We can now understand that the amount of air taken 
in at a breath, depends upon how much the chest cavity 
is enlarged. The increase in the size of the chest cavity 
depends largely upon how much the diaphragm is 
forced down in the act of breathing. 

Rhythmic Deep Breathing. — If we sit and stand 
erect, with the chest out and the abdomen in, the dia- 
phragm will expand freely, and we can feel it crowding 
down the organs of the abdomen, which go back to 
place as the diaphragm contracts. This alternate 
motion of the organs of the abdomen can be plainly 
noticed, and it is one of the best signs of correct 
breathing. The greater the action of the diaphragm, 
the greater will be the motion of the abdominal (ab- 
dominal) organs. In health this motion will be reg- 
ular and rhythmic, if one's position is correct. 

Best Position for Breathing. — The first thing, then, 
is to make sure of erect position with shoulders back, 
chest out, and abdomen inclined inward. The second 
is the deep expansion and contraction of the diaphragm, 
which is shown by the alternate rhythmic motion of 
the abdominal organs. These are the habits most im- 
portant to form for boys and girls who want to be 
happy and useful. No amount of money can begin 



94 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



to buy the good looks, good times, and the skill in 

both play and work, that these habits are sure to 

bring. 

Causes of Poor Breathing. — Round shoulders or a 

stooping position of any kind prevent rhythmic deep 

breathing. Sitting 
or standing with the 
abdomen inclined 
outward and the 
chest inclined in- 
ward, keeps the 
breathing muscles 
from having their 
freest expansion. 
Tight clothing about 
the chest or abdo- 
men has a similar 
effect. " Sit and 
stand erect " and 
" Do not wear tight 
thn?her h0Ulderab ° Ve clothing" are excel- 
lent mottoes for 

those who would get the best possible benefit from 

breathing. 

Perhaps one may have already formed the habit of 

stooping as he sits or stands, sliding down in his seat, 

or sitting and standing with the abdomen inclined out- 





Best habitual po- 
sition ; chest is free 
to expand and 
weight is easily- 
shifted from one 
foot to the other. 



Improper position ; 
causes spine to curve 
to one side, raises one 



BREATHING 



95 




ward and the chest inward. 

How may such bad habits be 

broken and the correct 

ones formed? 

How to gain Correct 

Position. — The chief 

thing is to be sure that 

we know the correct po- 
sition, and then ^| Desk too low. 

to keep trying until that is our 
habit. Exercises to 
strengthen the muscles 
of the back will assist , 
but thought and per- 
severance (per-se-ver'- 
ans) are the principal 

Slipping down in seat — a poor position, aids. It ^Kt^ 

is easy to understand that child- Vi 

hood is the very best time to culti- 
vate correct position. At 
that time there is more ani- 
mal matter than mineral in 
bones, and so their posi- 
tion is more easily | 
changed than when one 
grows older, since the correct position. 

amount of mineral matter in bones increases with age. 





96 



THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 



Value of Improved Position. — There are many im- 
portant things to learn in school. Few, however, can 

begin to be so valuable 
as the habit of erect sit- 
ting and standing posi- 
tion. A gain of 25% in 
standing in arithmetic or 
geography may seem a 
great deal both to chil- 
dren and to their par- 
ents. Yet a gain of 25% 
in correctness of posture 
might easily result in a 
thousand times more 
benefit. 

Another thing well 
worth thinking about is 
that improved position means handsomer appearance. 
Strength and beauty go with correct position. In the 
pictures on page 94 notice how much erect position 
improves appearance. It is right that we should all 
want to appear as well as possible. Any one who really 
wants to look his best will keep on trying for correct 
posture until that is his natural habit. If, besides, he 
is careful to breathe as pure air as possible, and forms 
the habit of rhythmic deep breathing as well, his start 
towards a lifetime of the best health and finest appear- 
ance is certainly most excellent. 




From Dr. Mosher^s "Hygienic Desks for 
School Children,' 1 '' Educational Review. 

An adj ustable seat and desk as used 
for writing. 



BREATHING 



97 



How Breathing purifies the Blood. — Granted, then, 
that we do fill our lungs with pure air when we breathe. 
How is its oxygen ex- 
changed for the carbon 
dioxide of the blood? 
This is very readily ex- 
plained. The extremely 
thin tissue of the air cells 
has a network of tiny 
blood vessels containing 
blood made dark by car- 
bon dioxide and other im- 
purities. The tissue is so 
thin that the exchange of 
oxygen of the air for car- Same seat and desk ' as used for reading - 
bon dioxide and waste of the blood takes place through 
the walls of the cells. If the thousands of air cells of 
the lungs were spread out, it is estimated that they 
would more than cover the surface of the body. Thus 
we can see how well the blood may be purified in our 
lungs, if we are only careful to have pure air to breathe, 
and to form the habit of breathing that will insure our 
bodies a plentiful supply. 




POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. The important muscle between the chest and the 
abdomen is called the diaphragm. The muscles between 
the ribs are called the intercostal muscles. 



98 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

2. Breathing is caused by the alternate expansion and 
contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, which 
alternately increases and decreases the size of the chest 
cavity, thus allowing air to come into the lungs and also 
forcing it out. 

3. In deep breathing the diaphragm expands so as to 
cause a noticeable pressure on the organs of the abdomen. 

4. Correct position is essential for the freest and best 
motion of the diaphragm. Sitting or standing erect with the 
shoulders back, and chest inclined outward and the abdomen 
inclined inward, is the correct position for rhythmic deep 
breathing. 

5. In health, one whose posture is correct, can readily 
notice the rhythmic deep movement of the diaphragm and 
its pressure upon the abdominal organs. We should not 
be satisfied with our breathing until this rhythmic deep 
movement of the diaphragm is our regular habit. 

6. The carbon dioxide and waste of the blood is exchanged 
for the oxygen of the air through the thin walls of the air 
cells of the lungs. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Through what passages does air travel in reaching 
the air cells of the lungs? 

2. With what are these passages lined? 

3. Tell what cilia are and state their use. 

4. Tell what mucus is and mention its uses. 

5. Describe each of the following: (a) pharynx; (b) 
glottis; (c) epiglottis; (d) tonsils; (e) larynx; (/) trachea; 
(g) bronchi; (h) bronchial tubes; (i) bronchioles; (j) air 
cells; (k) the lungs. 

6. What is the pleura? 

7. What is the apex of a lung? the base? 

8. Tell by what the chest cavity is bounded. 



BREATHING 



99 



9. What is the diaphragm? 

10. What are the intercostal muscles? 

11. Tell what causes air to come into the lungs. 

12. What forces air out of the lungs? 

13. Describe the position that is best for deep breathing. 

14. What is meant: (a) by inhaling or inspiring air? 
(b) by exhaling or expiring air? (c) by respiration? 

15. What is meant by saying that a person's respiration 
is twenty? 

16. How can we tell if rhythmic deep breathing is our 
habit? 

17. Where and how does the exchange of oxygen for the 
carbon dioxide and waste of the blood take place? 

18. If spread out flat, about how much surface would the 
air cells of the lungs cover? 

19. What are the most important habits to form, if we 
want to get the greatest possible benefit from our breathing? 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE STORY OF AIR IN BODY BUILDING 

MOUTH BREATHING AND ADENOIDS 

Use of the Nose. — The long, narrow passages of the 
nose were made both to cleanse and to warm the air. 
The dust, not stopped by the cilia, sticks to the moist 
mucous membrane lining, and is sent out when the nose 
is blown. The mucus also arrests bacteria, and makes 
them harmless. 

Mouth Breathing. — When air is taken in through 
the mouth, it passes to the lungs far more quickly than 
when breathed through the nose. For this reason, it is 
neither so well cleaned nor so well warmed as that which 
enters through the nose passages. It is also a fact that 
one can endure breathing poisonous air through the 
nose much longer than through the mouth. Without 
doubt, even the very best air is better fitted for use m 
the lungs, if it comes through the nose passages. 

Reasons for Breaking the Mouth-breathing Habit. — 
Suppose a person has been carelessly breathing through 
the mouth. Why should he form the habit of nose 
breathing without delay? There are several good 
reasons. He can run faster and better. He can play 

100 



MOUTH BREATHING AND ADENOIDS 



101 



harder and longer. He will not disfigure his counten- 
ance by forming the habit of constantly keeping the 
mouth partly open. He will not run the risk of becom- 
ing partly deaf, or of growing stupid in school through 
lack of power to give attention. In fact, his health, 
strength, and appearance will all be improved by 
breathing through the nose. 

Testing the Nostrils. — Since we want as full and free 
a supply of air as possible, we should also be sure 
that we are breathing through both nostrils. One 
nostril is often stopped up without being noticed. It 
is well, once in a while, to press one nostril closed, while 
we breathe through the 
other. In this way we 
can tell if both passages 
are open and unob- 
structed. 

Adenoids. — Some- 
times mouth breathing 
is compelled by polypi, 
adenoids, and other 
growths in the nose. 
The most common of 
these in children is ade- 
noids. They are spongy growths, which not only 
prevent air from passing through the nose, but also 
often interfere with the blood supply to the brain. 



M?se. 






Eustachian tube 



-Hare/palate 
Softpa/ate 




£p/0om 



Showing the location of adenoid 
growths (Zuppke). 




102 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Effects of Adenoids. — Naturally , then, adenoids 
cause children to be listless and dull in school. They 

are also a frequent cause of 
deafness. Another noticeable 
effect is the habit of constantly 
keeping the mouth partly open. 
In many cases, besides the 
partly open mouth and deaf- 

Facial expression in month- neSS > the afflicted perSOU is in 
breathing and breathing through th habit f star i ng ' m a half- 
the nose. & 

vacant manner. 

Why Adenoids are not removed. — Even with such 
marked symptoms, children are often allowed to go 
for years without having the adenoids removed. The 
symptoms are so evident that the trouble ought to be 
easily guessed, yet many parents have nothing done. 
They seem to take it for granted that it is the child's 
misfortune to be backward in school and to have deli- 
cate health. 

This is a great pity, since adenoids can be removed 
by an operation which is neither painful nor very ex- 
pensive. Many children have had this operation 
performed with great satisfaction to all concerned. 
Indeed the gain in health, standing in school, and good 
appearance have been so great in many cases as to seem 
almost a miracle. 

Very likely many parents do not know enough of the 



MOUTH BREATHING AND ADENOIDS 103 

symptoms of adenoids to realize that their children 
have them. And even when convinced of that fact, 
the possible expense or pain that they imagine con- 
nected with all surgical operations, keeps them from 
consulting a physician of standing. Of course they 
do not realize how greatly the operation would benefit 
the future health and success of the child. If they did, 
no labor or sacrifice to earn the necessary money could 
possibly be too great. 

If one happens to be so unfortunate as to have ade- 
noids, there are few, if any, benefits to look forward 
to more eagerly than their speedy removal. Perhaps 
we may know children that seem to have the well- 
known symptoms of adenoids. If so, how great a 
service we can perform by telling their parents of the 
marvelous benefits that have often resulted by having 
these obstructions to the nose passages removed. 

It is a fine thing in this world to be able to be our best, 
do our best, and look our best, as much of the time as is 
possible. Any of these desirable conditions is simply 
impossible, if the nose passages are stopped up by 
adenoids. This is a fact well worth remembering, not 
only for our own benefit, but also for that of our friends. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. The nose passages are specially constructed both to 
cleanse and to warm the air. If we want to be our healthiest 



104 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

and to play and work our best, we shall form the habit of 
breathing through the nose. 

2. Continuous mouth breathing injures health, and 
even shortens life. 

3. Adenoids are growths that stop up the nose passages. 
Their presence can often be detected by the habit of con- 
stantly keeping the mouth open. They cause dullness of 
the mind and partial deafness, and also lessen the general 
health. When removed by a simple operation, all of these 
defects soon disappear. 

4. The Big Four in connection with the use of air to the 
body are Good Ventilation, Breathing through the Nose, 
Erect Position, and Rhythmic Deep Breathing. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Explain the use of the cilia in the nose and other air 
passages. 

2. Tell two uses of mucus in the air passages. 

3. Give two good reasons why it is better to breathe 
through the nose than through the mouth. 

4. State two bad effects of continuous mouth breathing. 

5. How may we make sure that we are breathing through 
both nostrils? 

6. What are adenoids? 

7. Mention several symptoms of the presence of adenoids. 

8. What benefits result from having adenoids removed? 

9. Tell all the benefits of nose breathing. 

10. Tell what is said of adenoids, their effects, and 
removal. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE STORY OF WATER IN BODY BUILDING 

THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 

Amount of Water in the Body. — It may have been 
a surprise to find that vegetables, grains, meat, and 
other foods contain much water. Perhaps it will seem 
even stranger to learn that two-thirds of the entire 
human body is composed of the same liquid. Blood 
is about four-fifths water, and muscle, fat, cartilage 
(kar'ti-laj), and even bone, all have a share. When 
you think that if all the water were pressed out of the 
tissues of your body, only one-third of your entire 
weight would be left, you can realize what an important 
part this common liquid has in body building. 

Water is constantly leaving the body in perspiration 
(per-spi-ra'shun) through the pores of the skin, and in 
watery vapor from the lungs. There is also much 
water in the urine excreted (eks-kret'ed) by the kidneys. 

This loss is made up by the water in the foods 
that we eat and the liquids drunk during the day. 
The harder we work or play, the more water the body 
gives out. Hence the thirstier we become, and the 
more water we drink. Thirst shows that our tissues 

105 



106 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF TEE BODY 



Hair 



Touch 

body 

Fat- 
Sweat 
gland 



need water just as hunger tells that they need food. 

Men have lived many days without food; but great 

discomfort and even death would follow, if one had to 

go many hours without water. 

The Skin. — Besides supplying the tissues, water 

performs two other very useful services for the body. 

It helps to keep both 
\Epi(/ermf$ "the outside and the 
inside clean. The 
outside covering of 
the body, the skin, 
has two layers. The 
outer and thinner is 
called the epidermis 
(ep'i-der 'mis) . The 

inner and thicker layer is named the dermis. In the 

dermis are two sets of tubes called the perspiratory 

(per-spir'a-to-ry) glands and the oil glands. 
Perspiratory Glands. — The perspiratory glands are 

tubes lying deep in the dermis or in the fat underneath. 

An outlet or duct runs in a 

spiral manner to the surface 

of the skin. The body has 

many thousands of these 

glands. In fact, it is said 

that if all the perspiratory Surface of palm, magnified, 

, , „ showing ridges and pores from 

glands or a person or aver- sweat glands. 




A vertical section of the skin (Newell). 




WATER AND THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 107 

age size were placed end to end, they would reach 
about twenty-eight miles. 

The liquid given out from these miles of glands 
is called sweat or perspiration (per-spi-ra'shun). Be- 
sides water, it contains poisonous waste that the body 
must get rid of to keep healthy. On hot days, or when 
playing or working hard, we can see and feel perspira- 
tion on the skin. Perhaps we may not think that it 
comes from our pores at other times. Nevertheless, 
the glands of healthy skin are giving out some of this 
waste and water all of the time, but in such small 
amounts that it is called insensible (in-sen'si-bl) per- 
spiration. 

Like watery vapor from the lungs, perspiration has 
a disagreeable odor. Though the water evaporates, 
the waste substances remain on the skin or under- 
clothing. These, together with oil from the oil glands 
and tiny scales that are shed from the skin, collect 
and obstruct or interfere with the work of the pores. 
On this account the lungs and kidneys have more than 
their share of waste to excrete, or the body is not fully 
freed of its poisons. As a result, ill health or disease 
is quite likely to follow. 

Bathing. — The best way to keep the pores of the 
skin active and healthy is to bathe the entire body 
once a day in cold or tepid water, and at least once 
a week in warm water. Soap should be used with the 



108 THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 




WATER AND THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 109 

water to remove the oil and scales. Frequent bathing 
is necessary, not only to have the pores active and 
healthy, but also to keep the body clean and free from 
unpleasant odors. 

One of the best forms of bathing is the daily morn- 
ing sponge or plunge cold bath, followed by vigorous 
rubbing. Besides cleansing the skin and keeping the 
pores healthy, it stimulates the circulation of the blood. 
As a rule, it is a great aid in keeping one free from colds 
and in generally improving one's health and vigor. 

Tepid baths cleanse, but do not stimulate. Warm 
baths cleanse more thoroughly than either cold or 
tepid, and should be taken at least once a week. 
When about the normal temperature (tem'per-a-tur)T 
of the body, 98^°, or a little more, they are often a 
helpful aid to sleep. 

Steam or hot-air baths that cause a free flow of per- 
spiration are excellent to prevent colds, or even to help 
to get rid of one that is well started. For a person 
whose work is indoors and causes little perspiration, 
such a bath, once a week, is one of the very best aids to 
health. They may be taken at home in a rubber cloth 
cabinet bath or something similar, or at the public 
Russian or Turkish baths that are found in most 
cities. 

The Kidneys. — The kidneys, like the pores of the 
skin, excrete waste. They are bean-shaped organs 



110 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



about the length of a finger, and are situated in the back 
of the abdomen just below the diaphragm. They are 
composed of thousands of blood vessels and tiny tubes, 

so numerous that if placed 
end to end, they would 
reach several miles. 

As the blood flows 
through the kidneys, 
these tubes take from it 
water, waste, called urea 
(u're-a), and some min- 
eral matter. This fluid, 




A longitudinal section of the kidneys 
{Huxley)', Ct, cortex; in, medulla; Py, 
pyramid in the medulla ; P, pelvis ; U, 
ureters; HA, renal artery. 

which is called urine, flows 
through a tube, named the 
ureter (ti-re'ter), into the 
bladder, in which it is stored 
until it passes from the body. 
It is very important that 
the bladder should be emptied 
regularly several times a day, 
for, if it is allowed to become too full, poisonous urea 




The kidneys and bladder 

(Cheever). 



WATER AND THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 111 

will not be taken from the blood as it should be. It is 
also a strain on the muscles of the bladder to hold too 
large a quantity. To injure oneself by retaining urine 
too long is, indeed, false modesty. It will rarely oc- 
cur that relief cannot be easily had, if good sense is 
used. 

Benefits of drinking Pure Water. — Drinking freely 
of water is excellent both for the pores of the skin and 
for the kidneys. At least two quarts of water a day 
should be drunk, and more is better. Many persons 
make the mistake of drinking little or no water, except 
what they take in their coffee or tea. By and by, 
some dangerous disease afflicts them. Then they are 
surprised to be told by the wise doctor that if they had 
drunk plenty of water daily, their kidneys would have 
been kept well flushed, and the disease would very likely 
not have started. 

Drinking freely of water is good not only for the 
kidneys but also for the digestive organs. We have 
learned in a former chapter that little or no water should 
be drunk with meals. But a glass or two of cool or 
hot water a half hour or more before meals, especially 
before breakfast, cleanses the digestive organs and helps 
to prevent constipation. Many have also found this 
simple practice the best possible cure for indigestion. 

Pure Water. — We should, however, take pains to 
have our drinking water pure. Water in wells may 



112 



THE BUILDING AND CAKE OF THE BODY 



f 



A good way to kill germs in drinking water - 
twenty minutes. 



-boil 



drain outhouses, barnyards, or cemeteries, and so be- 
come impure. The water of a river or 
lake may be made impure by sewage. Boil- 
ing water twenty minutes kills typhoid 
and other disease bacteria. This does 
not mean only 
twenty minutes 
on the stove, but 
twenty minutes 
after boiling 
commences. 
When in doubt 
as to the purity 
of the drinking supply, boil the water twenty minutes. 

Harmful bacteria have been known to be in ice taken 
from a lake or river containing sewage. On this ac- 
count it is always safer to cool drinking water by put- 
ting it on the ice than by putting ice into the water. 

Good Water Remedies. — Water is an excellent rem- 
edy in many common ailments. In cases of headache, 
caused by indigestion, drinking freely of warm water 
will usually compel any offending substance to pass 
from the stomach or to be vomited. Hot water or 
hot lemonade drunk just before going to bed will often 
relieve a cold by starting the perspiration. Placing 
a hot-water bottle against or near any part of the 
body that is in pain will often be a relief. Soaking the 



WATER AND THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 113 

feet in hot water just before going to bed is good for 
colds, headache, or sleeplessness. An enema (en'e-ma) 
of tepid, warm, or cool water forced by a fountain 
syringe (sir'inj) into the rectum, the lower end of the 
bowels, often wards off serious sickness by causing a 
thorough discharge of waste. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. About two-thirds of the human body is composed of 
water. 

2. The body's outside covering, the skin, has thousands 
of perspiratory glands. They excrete perspiration, which, 
besides water, contains poisonous waste matter. 

3. Waste, scales of skin, and oil collect on the skin, 
and obstruct or interfere with the work of the pores. 

4. A daily cold or tepid bath and a warm bath at least 
once a week, are necessary to keep the skin clean and its 
pores active and healthy. 

5. The two kidneys are situated in the back part of 
the abdomen, just below the diaphragm. They excrete urine, 
which is composed of water, some mineral matter, and a 
poisonous waste called urea. 

6. Urine is stored in the bladder. The bladder should 
be relieved of its urine regularly several times a day. When 
urine is retained too long in the bladder, nervous strain may 
result and poisonous urea is not taken up from the blood as 
it should be. 

7. Drinking freely of water flushes the kidneys and helps 
to keep them active and healthy. 

8. Several glasses of cool or hot water a half hour or 
more before meals, especially before breakfast, cleanses and 



114 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

stimulates the digestive organs, and also helps to prevent 
constipation of the bowels. 

9. Water from wells near outhouses, cemeteries, or 
barnyards, or from rivers or lakes containing sewage, is 
likely to be impure. Such water should be boiled twenty 
minutes before it is used for drinking 

10. Ice from streams containing sewage should not be 
put into drinking water. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell what part of your own weight is composed of 
water. 

2. In what forms does water leave the body? 

3. How is this loss made up? 

4. What causes thirst? 

5. Why are we more likely to be thirsty at times of hard 
play and work than when we are not active? 

6. Describe the two layers of the skin. 

7. Name the two sets of glands that the skin contains. 

8. Tell all that is said about the skin. 

9. Describe the perspiratory glands and tell how numer- 
ous they are. 

10. Tell what is said of perspiration. 

11. What is insensible perspiration? 

12. Tell all that is said about the perspiratory glands and 
perspiration. 

13. Explain why bathing is necessary. 

14. At least how often should one bathe? 

15. Tell the benefits of the daily morning sponge or plunge 
cold bath. 

16. What is said of warm baths? 

17. Tell the benefits of steam or hot-air baths. 

18. Describe the kidneys. 



WATER AND THE ORGANS OF EXCRETION 115 

19. What important service do the kidneys perform? 

20. In what is urine stored? 

21. Why should the bladder be relieved regularly several 
times a day? 

22. What harm may be caused by retaining urine too long 
in the bladder? 

23. At least how much water should be drunk daily? 

24. In what way do people sometimes find out that they 
have been drinking too little water? 

25. Tell how the digestive organs may be helped by drink- 
ing freely of water, especially before breakfast. 

26. Mention several ways in which hot water is a simple 
but excellent remedy. 

27. Tell how to make water from an impure source safe 
for drinking. 

28. Tell why it is better to cool drinking water by placing 
it on ice than by placing ice in the water. 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE STORY OF OUR WONDERFUL RIVER OF LIFE 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION 



We have read that blood carries digested food and 
oxygen to all parts of the body. What is blood? 
Through what does it travel in its rounds through the 
body, and what force drives it? Blood is composed 
of a liquid called plasma and tiny boat-like substances 
known as red corpuscles (kor'ptis-s'lz) and white cor- 
puscles. 

The plasma is a colorless liquid, about nine-tenths of 

which is water. It 



supplies the tissues 
with nourishment, 
and also helps to con- 
vey carbon dioxide 
and waste to the 
lungs. 

The red corpuscles 
form about half the 
weight of the blood, 
and are about five 
hundred times more 



?e^ 






iO 



o, 



o„ 



»«j 






1 




Human blood corpuscles. Magnified 
about 200 times. 



116 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION 117 

numerous than the white corpuscles. Many thousands 
of red corpuscles are said to be in one drop of blood. 
They carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the 
body, and bring back carbon dioxide to the lungs. 

White corpuscles destroy disease bacteria that get 
into the body. They also perform other useful ser- 
vices. 

Arteries are the tubes or cord-like canals through 
which blood passes from the heart. Their walls are 
very elastic. After death the arteries are always found 
empty. For this reason, before the discovery of the 
circulation of the blood, it was thought that they carried 
air. 

Veins are the tubes or cord-like canals through 
which blood travels to the heart. Their walls are 
thinner than those of the arteries and not as elastic. 

Capillaries are the tiny blood vessels connecting the 
arteries and veins. They are so small and so numerous 
that j^ou cannot prick the flesh of the body without 
drawing blood. Capillaries allow plasma, oxygen ; 
and white corpuscles to pass among the tissues. They 
also let carbon dioxide and other waste pass from the 
tissues into the blood. 

The heart is the organ that forces blood through the 
arteries, capillaries, and veins back to the heart again. 
It is situated between the lungs, and is shaped like a 
pear, having its pointed end downward and toward 



118 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



the left side of the body. Its thick muscular walls are 
divided into four chambers. The two upper chambers 
are called the right auricle and the left auricle, and the 

two lower, the right ventricle 
and the left ventricle. The 
heart is an involuntary (ln- 
vol'tin-ta-ry) muscle, — that 




is, it works without our 



The heart. 



willing it to do so. A tough 
membrane, called the peri- 
cardium (p er'i-kar 'di-um) , 
surrounds the heart, protect- 
ing it from injury. Each 
auricle opens into the ven- 
tricle beneath it, but there 
is no opening between the 
two auricles or the two ventricles. 

The Course of the Blood. — A contraction of the right 
auricle forces blood into the right ventricle. The latter 
then contracts, forcing the blood through the pul- 
monary artery into the numerous capillaries of the 
lungs, thence through the pulmonary vein to the left 
auricle of the heart. By contraction of the left auricle, 
blood that has come from the lungs is forced into 
the left ventricle whose contraction drives it into the 
large artery called the aorta, the largest artery of the 
body. This divides and subdivides until every part of 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION 119 




The large blood vessels of the body : a, left common carotid artery; b, left 
jugular vein; c, arch of aorta; d, blood vessels of the left lung; e, left kidney 
with renal vein and artery ; /, abdominal aorta ; g, left common illiac artery ; 
h, femoral artery; j, ulnar artery; Jc, radial artery; /, ascending vena cava; 
m, descending vena cava ; n, blood vessels of the knee ; o, right subclavian vein. 



120 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



Desce/rtfm 
rata a/fa 



Ascendtnmli 

vena cam I ' 



the body is reached. The blood flows through 

these divi- 
sions, then 
into the capil- 
laries, and 
back through 
the veins to 
the right auri- 
cle of the 
heart. Small 
valves be- 
tween each 
auricle and 
the ventricle 
into which it 
opens, and 

between the ventricles and the arteries leading from 
them, keep the blood from flowing backward. 

Color of Blood. — The blood which comes through 
the veins to the right side of the heart, and passes 
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, is dark 
red in color. The exchange of carbon dioxide and waste 
for oxygen, which takes place in the capillaries of the 
lungs, changes the color of blood to a bright red, which 
it retains while it is in the arteries. 

Pulse. — The contraction or beating of the heart is 
sometimes called a pulsation. The arteries are so 




Showing the course of blood through the heart (Zuppke). 




THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION 121 

elastic that they contract and relax as the blood flows 
through them ; thus plainly indicating the heart beats. 
By placing a finger on an ar- 
tery, the rate of the heart beat 
can be easily counted. The 
inside of the wrist, just below 
the base of the thumb, is the 
place where the heart beat can 
be most readily found. The 

Showing how to find the pulse 

heart of an adult male usually {s^&merty 

beats about seventy times a minute, and that of an 
adult female about eighty times a minute. These are 
called the normal rate. 

Illness often changes the pulse rate, since the poisons 
it causes affect the nerve that controls the heart. 
One of the first things the doctor usually does is to 
feel his patient's pulse. He wants to find out how 
frequent and strong the heart beat is. If the heart 
beat is strong, and near the normal rate, it is a sign that 
the illness is not very serious. If the pulse indicates 
that the beat of the heart is weak and much above or 
below the normal rate, it is a symptom of more or less 
serious sickness. It is a good thing to be able to judge 
the heart's action through the pulse. Every adult 
member of a family should be able to do this. Illness 
may often be warded off by a little care, if the heart 
beat shows that rest and quiet are necessary. 



122 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

The Heart's Work. — As a rule, the heart beats more 
than four hundred times an hour and about one hun- 
dred thousand times a day. The only rest it has is a 
very short pause between beats. The various organs 
and tissues must be kept supplied with oxygen and nu- 
triment. They must also be constantly relieved of car- 
bon dioxide and waste. For these reasons, the heart 
must keep working on and on with only its slight rest 
between beats. Life ends when the heart stops beat- 
ing. An adult's body contains about six quarts of 
blood. This is driven through the body so frequently, 
however, that the heart can be said to lift several hogs- 
heads daily. 

Alcohol. — Alcoholic drinks so affect the white cor- 
puscles of the blood that they are not effective in the 
work of resisting disease. Such drinks enlarge the 
arteries and cause too much blood to come to the surface 
of the body. In time they will cause the arteries to 
become so hardened that they may easily burst and 
cause death. Alcohol will also in time change the mus- 
cles of the heart into fat, causing weakness and death. 

Tobacco. — The use of tobacco sometimes causes 
a noticeable change in the action of the heart. The 
condition is known as a a tobacco heart." If the use 
of tobacco is continued, serious results may follow. 
If the tobacco habit is given up, the heart's action will 
in time become normal again. 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION 123 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

' 1. Blood is the delivery wagon which carries oxygen and 
nutriment to all parts of the body, and brings back carbon 
dioxide and other waste. 

2. We should not hinder the circulation of the blood by 
wearing tight garters, belts, or too closely fitting clothing 
of any kind. 

3. Exercise, especially out of doors in the open air, aids 
in keeping the circulation healthy. 

4. Fast running, rapid bicycle riding, or any other severe 
exercise too long continued, is likely to injure the heart 
and shorten life. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is plasma? 

2. Tell about the red corpuscles. 

3. What is said of the white corpuscles? 

4. Tell all you can about blood and what composes it. 

5. Describe the arteries and tell their use. 

6. What is said of veins? 

7. What are capillaries? 

8. Tell how numerous capillaries are. 

9. Tell all that is said about capillaries. 

10. Tell the position and shape of the heart. 

11. How many divisions or chambers has the heart, and 
what are their names? 

12. What is said of the openings between the chambers 
of the heart? 

13. What covering protects the heart? 

14. Why is the heart called an involuntary muscle? 

15. Tell all you can about the heart. 

16. Tell the course of the blood from the right auricle 
of the heart to the left auricle. 



124 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

17. Tell the course of the blood from the left auricle to 
the right auricle. 

18. What keeps the blood from flowing backward? 

19. What and where is the aorta? 

20. Where does the change in the color of the blood take 
place, and what causes it? 

21. What causes pulse? 

22. Where is the best place to find the pulse? 

23. What is the normal pulse rate of a man? of a woman? 

24. What does the doctor judge from the pulse, and why? 

25. Tell all you can about the pulse. 

26. About how many times does the heart beat in an hour? 
in a day? 

27. What rest does the heart have? 

28. Why must it keep so constantly at work? 

29. About how much blood is in the body of an adult? 

30. How much blood may the heart be said to lift or 
force daily? 

31. What is the effect of alcohol on the blood? on the 
arteries? on the heart? 

32. What is the effect of tobacco on the heart? 



CHAPTER XX 
THE STORY OF OUR TELEGRAPH SYSTEM 

THE BRAIN AND NERVES 

The Nervous System. — We have read that the heart 
and the digestive organs work without our willing them 
to do so. We also know that some muscles move as 
our will directs. Where is the will? How are its com- 
mands carried to all parts of the body? 

The will or mind is in the brain. The brain tele- 
graphs or sends its commands to all parts of the body 
over string-like fibers called nerves. The brain also 
receives messages from all parts of the body through 
nerves. The brain, spinal cord, and nerves, or the 
nervous system, form what may well be called the tele- 
graph system of the body. 

The Brain. — On page 126 we see a picture of the 
brain as it would appear if the skull that protects it 
were removed. It is composed of a soft substance, 
part of which is gray in color and part white. The 
surface of the brain is not smooth, but is wrinkled 
or has ridges called convolutions (kon-vo-lu'shunz). 
The small oval-looking part is called the medulla (me- 
dulla), or bulb. The part back of and above the 

125 



126 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



medulla is the cerebellum (ser'e-bel'lum). The large 
or fore part is the cerebrum (ser'e-brum). 

The medulla, or bulb, connects both the cerebrum 
and the cerebellum with the spinal cord. Nerves that 



Cerebrum 




fy //7a /cord 

The left half of the brain, inner surface (Rebert). 

rise in the medulla control the greater part of the head 
and many of the internal organs of the body, including 
the heart and lungs. 

The cerebellum is about the size of a small fist. Its 
use is not well understood. Animals whose cerebellum 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 127 

has been injured can move the muscles. They can- 
not, however, use at the same time and in the right way 
all the muscles necessary for such an act as walking. 
As a result, they are uncertain in their movements and 
stagger like drunken men. From this it is thought 
that the cerebellum causes the muscles to keep a proper 
amount of contraction (kon-trak'shun), and that it 
also assists in having them move together in the same 
order. 

The cerebrum comprises more than three-fourths of 
the brain. A groove divides its upper surface into 
equal parts called hemispheres (hem'i-sferz). It is 
the seat of all thought and action. It also receives all 
the messages that come through the senses of touch, 
taste, smell, hearing, and seeing. Without a cerebrum, 
we could not think or will; neither would any of our 
senses be of use to us. 

Since the cerebrum is the seat of the nerves control- 
ling motion, a hard blow on the top of the head causes 
one to fall down. The skull is not completely grown 
together until a child is two years old. For this reason 
special pains should be taken to protect babies from 
blows on the head through falls or any other cause. 
Such accidents have killed infants or crippled them in 
mind or body for life. 

The cerebrum of an animal may be removed, and 
though its sense and power of action will be lost, yet 



128 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

it will continue to live. If the cerebellum of an animal 
is injured, the proper control of its muscles is lost; but 
if the medulla is injured, death 
follows at once, for breathing stops. 
The spinal cord extends from the 
medulla to the base of the spine. 
It is our main telegraph line, and 
branches extend from it to all parts 
of the body. It is well protected 
by the backbone or spinal column. 
Notice the backbone and spinal 
cord of some animal from which 
the flesh has been removed, and 
you will get a fair idea of how 
your own are constructed. 

Care of the Nervous System. — 
Since all the muscles and organs 
of the body are controlled by the 
brain through the nerves, it is 
most important that the nervous 
system should be kept strong and 
healthy. To keep in such condi- 
tion, it must be supplied with 
plenty of pure air, nourishing food, 
and rest. 

Simple, well-cooked food affords 

The backbone or spinal . ^ -. . . n , « . -, 

column — side view. the best nourishment lor the ner- 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 



129 




The general arrangement of the nervous system (viewed from behind), show- 
ing the brain, the spinal cord, and the chief nerves that branch from it. 

K 



130 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

vous system, for good digestion and good nerves, as 
a rule, go together. Notice children who are nervous 
and sickly. Often you will find that they eat a great 
deal of sweets, and are not regular about meals or 
other habits which affect the digestive organs. 

Thought, action, and direction begin in the brain. 
All outside impressions (lm-presh'unz) come through 
the nerves to the brain. It follows, then, that the 
brain and the nerves are never fully at rest except in 
sleep. On this account it is most essential (es-sen'- 
shal) that every one should have regular sleep, and 
plenty of it. ¥ 

Sleep. — Little babies should sleep the greater part 
of the day. Growing children need from fifteen to ten 
or nine hours daily. Adults should sleep from eight to 
ten hours. If one goes to bed at an early hour in the 
evening, it is safe to sleep until he wakes naturally 
(nat'ur-al-ly) the next morning. Even if it be more 
than the number of hours that a person of his age is 
said to require, nature is simply giving needed rest 
to his nervous system. 

Sometimes, after long-continued bicycle riding, 
running, or other very fast or hard work, one cannot 
sleep well because of the unusual beating of the heart. 
That is a good sign that such efforts are too severe for 
the nervous system, and that health may be injured by 
repeating them. Sleeplessness is an unfavorable sign 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 131 

at any time for anybody, and one that should never be 
lightly considered. If continued more than a night or 
two, a competent (kom'pe-tent) physician should be 
at once consulted, and his advice carefully followed. 
Indeed, no care should be spared to get back the habit 
of natural, restful sleep. 

It is time wasted to try to study when one is sleepy. 
Obey nature's command to sleep, and then study early 
in the morning. It is even more unwise to think it 
possible to get along with very little sleep just because 
one is so fortunate as to be strong. The ability with 
which both mind and body work depends upon the 
state of the brain and nerves. If they are well nour- 
ished and rested, we can do our best; if they are poorly 
nourished and tired, our best is not possible. 

Growth in Brain Power. — The seat of thought, 
memory, and reason is in the brain. So also is our 
power of motion. Like all parts of the body, the brain 
grows strong through exercise. Some children thkik 
that they can never learn spelling, geography, his- 
tory, or other studies requiring memory. Others think 
that they cannot master studies like arithmetic, that 
require reasoning. Time and again, it has been proved 
that, as a rule, if one keeps trying and trying, these 
faculties (fak'ul-tiz) of the brain will be made strong. 
Likewise, a person may be very awkward and unskillful 
at certain games or exercises. Persevering, frequent 



132 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

practice will also bring the desired gain here, if one has 
the will to keep trying. In both cases, success depends 
upon how hard one tries, and whether he keeps on trying 
long enough. 

Injuries to the Brain. — Boys sometimes climb to 
places where dangerous falls are possible. Often, 
too, they are very careless about throwing stones and 
other hard things. A hard blow on the head or spine 
has often caused the loss of the power to think or to 
move, and has even resulted in instant death. No boy 
would risk dangerous falls if he stopped to think he 
might thereby be made a cripple or an idiot for life. 
Surely no one would throw hard things in play, if he 
knew the act might ruin a comrade's success and hap- 
piness. 

Alcohol. — We know that drunken persons stagger 
because alcoholic liquor has caused the brain to lose 
control of the muscles. In a previous chapter, we also 
read that a large part of crime and insanity is due to 
the weakening effect of alcohol upon the will and mind. 

Tobacco and Cigarettes. — Almost every one is made 
ill by tobacco the first time he uses it. That is due to 
its poisonous effect upon the nervous system. Boys 
who use tobacco have both their minds and bodies 
stunted. They get behind in school work, and become 
pale and weak in appearance. Often their wills are so 
affected that they readily drift into disgrace and crime. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 133 

Cigarettes are boys' deadly enemy. They should be 
labeled " Poison for Boys." 

While preparing for athletic contests, college boys 
are not allowed to use either alcoholic drinks or tobacco. 
The reason is that they can work their best longer with- 
out them. Any one who wishes always to have the best 
control of his mind and muscles will never use either. 

Luther Burbank, the greatest expert plant grower, 
said in the Sunday School T ivies: "I never use 
tobacco or alcohol in any form and rarely coffee 
or tea. Such stimulants cannot be used even mildly 
in work requiring strict attention and definite concen- 
tration (kon'sen-tra'shtin) of the mind. 

" To assist me in the work of budding, work that is 
as accurate (ak'kti-rat) and exacting as watch-making, 
I have a force of twenty men. Some time ago 
my foreman surprised me by saying that, as a rule, the 
men I had to discharge because they could not do this 
delicate work, turned out to be drinkers or smokers. 
These men are able to do the rough work of farming, 
but call budding and other delicate work " puttering " 
(ptit'ter-ing), and have to give it up because they can- 
not control their nerve force. Even men who smoke 
but one cigar a day cannot be trusted with some of my 
most delicate work. Cigarettes are even more damaging 
than cigars, and their use by boys is a little short of 
criminal. It will produce in them the same results that 



134 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 




Mr. Burbank pollinating the blossoms of a plum tree. He thinks that using 
tobacco unfits men to do their best work. 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 135 

sand placed in a watch will produce — destruction 
(de-strtik'shun). 

" Several of my young acquaintances (ak-kwanf- 
an-cez), who gave promise of making happy and useful 
citizens, are in the grave; and there is no question 
whatever but that cigarettes were the cause. No 
boy living would commence the use of cigarettes, if he 
knew what a useless, soulless, worthless thing they 
would make of him." 

Cigarettes produce a poison that ordinary tobacco 
or cigars do not have. The combination (kom'bi-na'- 
shun) of burning paper and tobacco produces a com- 
pound called acrolein (a-kro'le-m). There is not much 
of this compound, but in what there is, lies the great 
danger of the cigarette. 

Thomas A. Edison, the great inventor and chemist, 
says: " Acrolein is one of the most terrible drugs in 
its effects upon the human body. The burning of 
ordinary cigarette paper always produces acrolein. 
That is what makes the smoke so irritating (lr'ri-tat- 
mg). I really believe that it often makes boys insane. 
We sometimes develop acrolein in the experiments with 
glycerine in my laboratory (lab'6-ra-to-ry). One 
whiff of it from the oven drove one of my assistants out 
of the building, the other day. I can hardly make too 
great the dangerous nature of acrolein ; 3^et that is what 
a man or boy is dealing with every time he smokes a 
cigarette." 



136 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. The brain, spinal cord, and nerves make up the nervous 
system. 

2. The seat of all thought and action is in the brain. 
The commands of the brain are sent to all parts of the body 
through the nerves. All impressions received through the 
five senses reach the brain by way of the nerves. 

3. A hard blow on the head may cripple one's mind or 
body for life. A blow on the backbone may also cause seri- 
ous injury. Children's brains are not fully protected by 
the skull until they are about two years old. For this 
reason, special pains should be taken to keep their heads 
from injury. 

4. Pure air, nourishing food, and plentiful sleep are all 
essential to a healthy nervous system. 

5. Sleeplessness is a sign of disordered health that should 
always arouse much concern. No pains should be spared 
to get back the habit of natural, restful sleep as soon as 
possible. 

6. Memory, reason, and quickness of thought and action, 
are all qualities that can be cultivated and strengthened 
by earnest, persevering practice; for the brain, like other 
parts of the body, is made strong by exercise. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where is the will or mind? 

2. Over what does the brain send its commands to other 
parts of the body, and through what does it receive messages? 

3. What makes up the nervous system? 

4. Tell of what kind of substance the brain is composed, 
and give the colors of this substance. 

5. What is said of the surface of the brain? 



THE BRAIN AND NERVES 137 

6. Mention the three parts of the brain. 

7. Tell all you can about the brain. 

8. Describe: (a) the medulla; (6) the cerebellum; (c) the 
cerebrum, and tell the use of each. 

9. If the cerebrum of an animal is removed, what is the 
effect? 

10. What effect on an animal is caused by an injury to 
the cerebellum? to the medulla? 

11. Tell what is said of the spinal cord. 

12. With what must the body be supplied if the nervous 
system is kept strong and healthy? 

13. What kind of food furnishes the best nourishment for 
the nerves? 

14. What is often noticed about the habits of children 
who are nervous and sickly? 

15. How much should little babies sleep? growing chil- 
dren? adults? 

16. Why should continued sleeplessness cause much con- 
cern? 

17. Tell why it is time wasted to try to study when one 
is sleepy. 

18. Why is it unwise to think one can get along with 
but little sleep if he is strong? 

19. Tell how memory, reason, and quickness, or graceful- 
ness of action may be improved. 

20. Why should hard blows on the head or spine be 
avoided? 

21. Why is special care necessary to protect the head of 
a baby? 

22. Tell the effect of alcohol on the brain. 

23. Why does tobacco make ill one who uses it for the 
first time? Tell what is said of Burbank; of Edison. 

24. Why should cigarettes be labeled " Poison for Boys " ? 



CHAPTER XXI 



THE CARE OF THE BODY 



THE TEETH 



In a previous chapter we learned how important it is 
to masticate our food thoroughly. Good teeth are 
necessary for thorough mastication. Clean, regular 
teeth add much to any person's good appearance. 
Teeth are also an aid in speaking distinctly. For 
these and other reasons, we should always take the very 
best care of these useful tools. 

Structure of a Tooth. — The picture on this page 
shows the chief parts of a tooth. The part outside the 
gum is called the crown. The roots are the part within 
the gum. Both the crown and the roots are hollow. 

Within the hollow space is the 
pidpj which contains the blood 
vessels and nerve. The out- 
side of the crown is enamel, 
which is very hard. Under- 
neath the enamel is dentine, 
which is much softer than 
enamel, and forms the chief part of the crown. 

138 



Crown 
NecA 

Root 




[name/ 

Pi//pcav/fy 
Dentine 

Cement 



Showing the structure of a tooth 

(Zinns). 



THE TEETH 



139 



Temporary and Permanent Teeth. — Two different 
sets of teeth develop in our mouths. The milk teeth, 
or temporary set, come first. They are twenty in 
number, — ten in each jaw. These are followed by a 
second or permanent set. In this set there are thirty- 




b 4- 2 Z 4- 
W>\*ler VeVxa <rt\et\\ \ec\\\ 

Temporary and permanent teeth. 

two teeth, sixteen in each jaw. The above picture 
shows both the temporary and permanent sets. Notice 
that the front teeth are sharp and made for tearing 
or cutting, while the back teeth are broader and made 
for grinding. It can also be seen that the teeth in the 
lower jaw are like those having the same number in the 
upper jaw. 

Decay of Teeth. — The way to keep our teeth white 
and healthy is to prevent decay. But can children 
learn to do this? Indeed they can, for the cause is 



140 



THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 



easily understood, and may be, to a large degree, pre- 
vented. The hard enamel of teeth is composed of lime 
and other minerals. Food, decaying in the mouth, 
produces an acid which dissolves enamel. 
The way to prevent our teeth from de- 
caying, is to keep them free from small 
particles of food. 

Cleaning Teeth. — Of course, the way 
to do this, is to clean the teeth thoroughly 
every day. Merely using a tooth brush 
will not answer, for small bits of food will 
remain between the teeth, even after the 
most careful brushing. The following is 
an excellent way to get the teeth well 
freed from food. 

First rinse the mouth with warm water. 
Then crowd dental floss between all of the teeth in 
both jaws to force out food particles, and follow this 
with another rinsing. Afterward use a tooth brush, 
being careful to move it up and down instead of cross- 
wise. Moving the brush crosswise is likely to lodge 
food between the teeth, instead of getting it out. Now 
rinse the mouth again, and the teeth should be well 
freed from food. Last of all, a good tooth powder 
should be used. 

Dental Floss. — As a rule, the teeth cannot be well 
freed from food without using dental floss. The latter 




The best tooth 
brush. 




THE TEETH 141 

is really of greater value than the tooth brush. If 

one cannot have both, keep supplied with the dental 

floss by all means. Rinsing with 

water, using dental floss, rinsing again, 

and afterward rubbing the teeth with 

a cotton cloth will get good results. It 

is well to clean the teeth after each 

meal; but often this is not convenient. 

The best plan, then, is to rinse the teeth Spool of dental floss. 

after each meal, and clean them thoroughly just before 

going to bed. If all food particles are removed just 

before retiring, there will be no chance for acid to 

form from decaying food during the long hours of sleep. 

On this account, upon going to bed is the very best 

time to clean the teeth. 

Object of cleaning Teeth. — Do not think that the 
object of cleaning the teeth is to nicely polish the few 
that are in front. The chief aim is to remove all food 
particles from the mouth. No matter how well one 
may polish the front teeth, acid produced by decaying 
food between the back teeth, will cause decay there. 
This may spread from tooth to tooth until the front 
ones also become infected. Besides, the principal use 
of teeth is to aid in preparing food for digestion. In 
this most important work, the back teeth are just as 
useful as those in front. 

Some people think it is not necessary to clean the first 



142 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

or temporary set of teeth, since they last but a few 
years. Such an idea is also mistaken. Many poor 
sets of permanent teeth and much ill health have very 
likely been caused by failure to take good care of the 
first set. Notice the picture on page 139. It can be 
seen that the last three teeth on either side of both 
jaws in the permanent set are not in the temporary 
set. These broad teeth are called molars. 

The First Permanent Molars. — The four molars 
marked 1 are among the first permanent teeth to arrive. 
They are spoken of as sixth year molars because they 
frequently appear in the mouth when one is about six 
years old. Often these are full grown before many of 
the temporary set are removed. If the first set are 
allowed to decay, these molars of the second set may 
also become diseased, and later infect others of the 
permanent teeth. In the course of a few years, the 
roots of the first teeth are absorbed by the blood, and 
the growing permanent teeth force their crowns loose 
from the gum. Nevertheless, while in the mouth, all 
temporary teeth should be kept clean and healthy. 

Regular Visits to the Dentist. — Decay causes cavities 
(kav'i-tiz) in teeth, and in spite of the most careful 
cleaning these will often get started. For this reason, 
one should have his teeth examined and cleaned by a 
dentist regularly twice a year, from the age of four at 
the latest. A small cavity weakens a tooth very little 



THE TEETH 143 

and can usually be filled without pain. The larger a 
cavity becomes, the more it weakens the tooth, and the 
nearer it gets to the nerve, — hence the more pain the 
work of filling is likely to cause. With his tools, the 
dentist can remove tartar, a harmful substance, that 
often gathers on teeth and cannot be removed by 
brushing. It is claimed that cavities may be entirely 
prevented by a visit to the dentist once a month. 

Food and the Teeth. — To keep healthy, teeth must 
also receive the right kind of nutriment from the blood. 
Milk, eggs, breakfast foods, bread, and vegetables 
contain lime and other good teeth-building materials. 
Much candy and other sweets should not be eaten. 

Need for Exercise. — We know that the blood carries 
nutriment to all parts of the body. Like other parts, 
the teeth must be exercised in order to have a good cir- 
culation of blood. One who lives upon liquids and 
such soft foods as pie and cake, will have poor teeth, 
because so little chewing is necessary in eating them. 
Crust, toast, and any food that requires vigorous chew- 
ing help to keep teeth healthy by giving them vigorous 
exercise. Other things being equal, a food that com- 
pels vigorous exercise of the teeth should be chosen 
instead of one that does not, both for the sake of masti- 
cation and the health of the teeth. 

How Teeth are Injured. — Do not pick the teeth with 
pins or anything else made of metal. Do not use them 



144 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



to crack nuts or other things harder than food. Do 
not bite thread or string. Do not immediately (lm- 

me'di-at-ly) follow 
hot drinks or food 
with cold, or cold 
with hot. Do not 
take medicines con- 
taining iron or acid 
except through a 
tube. Any of these 
practices may injure 
the hard enamel, thus opening a path for decay. Do 
not smoke or chew tobacco, for it discolors teeth and 
makes them less beautiful. 




" Hand-I-Hold Babe Mit." 
Device to prevent thumb sucking. 




♦ Showing the teeth before and after straightening. 

(Loaned by Dr. Herbert A. Pullen.) 

Making Teeth Regular. — Regular teeth are more 
beautiful than those that are crowded out of position. 



THE TEETH 



145 



Often the permanent teeth are crowded because the 
jaws do not grow large enough. This lack of growth 
is caused partly by not chewing the food enough, and 
by eating too much soft foods that do not give the 
teeth the exercise they need. Sometimes permanent 
teeth are not regular, because the temporary ones were 
removed too soon. While teething, children are often 
allowed to constantly suck a thumb or a " pacifier." 
This should not be allowed, since it sometimes causes 
an ill-shaped mouth and irregular teeth. Devices that 
will prevent children from sucking their thumbs can 
be bought at slight expense. Continuous mouth 
breathing and constant sucking in of the lower lip also 
cause the same defects, and should not be allowed. 




Portrait of girl before and after teeth were straightened. 
(Loaned by Dr. Herbert A. Pullen.) 

The science of making irregular teeth more regular 
is called orthodontia (or-tho-don'sha). A specialist in 



146 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

orthodontia can greatly improve the looks of an irreg- 
ular set of teeth. Though the work requires many 
short visits and takes some time, it is not painful. 
Such a change often adds so much to the beauty of 
the mouth and teeth that one feels well repaid for the 
expense and trouble. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. There are twenty teeth in the temporary set and 
thirty-two in the permanent set. The latter contain twelve 
molars not found in the former. 

2. Enamel is the protecting armor of teeth. Decay of 
teeth is caused by the acid from decaying food in the mouth 
dissolving some of the enamel. One may largely prevent 
decay of teeth by keeping the mouth free from food particles. 

3. The chief aim in cleaning teeth should be to remove 
all substances that may cause decay in the mouth. Dental 
floss is very useful in teeth cleaning, since with it, food that 
has lodged between the teeth may be crowded out. 

4. One should have his teeth examined and cleaned 
by a dentist, regularly twice a year, at least from the time 
he is four years old, and before, if necessary. Any cavities 
may be filled at these times. The temporary teeth should 
be cleaned and filled as carefully as the permanent set. 

5. Irregular teeth result from constantly sucking the 
thumb, sucking in the lower lip, continuous mouth breath- 
ing, and other causes. The appearance of an irregular set of 
teeth can be greatly improved by a specialist. 



THE TEETH 147 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell three ways in which the teeth are useful. 

2. What part of a tooth is the crown? 

3. Where are the roots of a tooth? 

4. What is enamel? dentine? 

5. Where are the blood vessels and the nerve of a tooth? 

6. How many teeth in the temporary set? in the per- 
manent set? 

7. What causes teeth to decay? 

8. Tell three important things necessary to do in clean- 
ing your teeth. 

9. Explain why dental floss is of great value in teeth 
cleaning. 

10. When is the very best time of day to clean the teeth, 
and why? 

11. Why is it unwise merely to polish the front teeth? 

12. Tell why the temporary teeth should be kept clean 
and healthy. 

13. What are the " sixth year molars/' and why do they 
often become diseased? 

14. Why should one have his teeth examined by a dentist 
at least twice* a year? 

15. What kind of food must be furnished teeth to keep 
them healthy? 

16. Of what foods will those wishing to have good teeth 
eat but little? 

17. Why do teeth need vigorous exercise, and what foods 
furnish it? 

18. Mention several practices likely to injure the enamel 
of teeth. 

19. Tell some of the causes of irregular teeth. 

20. How may the appearance of an irregular set of teeth 
be improved? 



CHAPTER XXII 



THE EYES 

Usefulness of the Eyes. — Few realize how much we 
have to depend upon our eyes. In dressing, eating, 
working, playing, — in fact, in nearly everything, they 
guide our movements and let in correct ideas of the 
outside world to the brain. How much they add to 

our pleasure and 
usefulness, only 
those who have 
become blind can 
tell. How greatly 
good sight in- 
creases our ability 
in study and work, 
and our skill and 
activity in play, 
those with weak 
eyes well know. 

A section through the eyeball. Much Qf Qur ^ 

cess and happiness in life will depend upon keeping 
good sight. This is a most important fact that 
cannot be realized too soon. Another is that no 
reader of this book is too young to form the habit 

148 




Artery 
Optictterve 



THE EYES 149 

of doing several things that will help to favor and 
to protect his eyes. None should be so unwise as to 
keep from doing some things that will surely weaken 
their power of seeing. 

The Eye and the Camera. — Perhaps we may own a 
camera. If not, we very likely have seen some one 




Learning to use the camera. 

else use one. We know that in taking a picture a 
spring is touched that, for a second or more, lets rays 
of light travel through a glass lens to a sensitive plate 
or film behind it. If the one taking the picture is in 
such a position that the rays of light come to a focus 
(fo'kus) upon the sensitive plate or film, a clear picture 
can be developed; if not, the picture will be blurred 
and not distinct. 



150 



THE BUILDING AND CAME OF THE BODY 



In some respects, our eyes are like a camera. The 
little round hole in the center of the eye, called the 
pupil, becomes larger or smaller according to the bright- 
ness of the light in which what we are looking at hap- 
pens to be. The rays of light from this pass through 
the eyeball, which corresponds to the glass lens of the 
camera, and are focused upon the retina (ret'i-na), the 
innermost coat of the eyeball. Pictures made by these 
rays upon the retina are at once carried through the 
optic nerve to the brain. 

Use of the Muscles of the Eye. — In learning to use 
a camera, films are often blurred because the rays of 
light did not come to a focus upon the sensitive plate or 
film. In order to have a clear picture through our eyes, 




Showing how the eyeball brings the rays of light from an 
object to a focus on the retina. 



the rays of light from the object at which we are look- 
ing must be focused upon the retina. In properly 
formed eyes, some wonderful little muscles so change 
the form of the eyeball that it brings the rays of light 
to the right focus. 



THE EYES 151 

Rays of light from a distance come to a focus upon 
the retina of properly foimed eyes with little or no 
effort of the muscles. The nearer and the smaller the 
object we are looking at, the harder work the muscles 
of the eye have in so changing the form of the eyeball 
as to bring the incoming rays to a focus. It also re- 
quires effort of these muscles to make both eyes focus 
a near object at the same time. 

Resting the Eyes. — From these facts we can learn 
two important truths. First, that such close work as 
reading and sewing costs the muscles of the eyes severe 
effort. Second, that looking at distant objects causes 
the muscles of the eyes little or no effort. When our 
eyes feel uncomfortable, we can often make them all 
right again by doing no reading and other close work 
for a few hours or days. While doing close work, we 
may easily rest our eyes by once in a while gazing off 
at distant objects, if only for a few seconds. 

In doing close work, we should always have plenty 
of light. In most rooms, it is far better to sit near the 
windows when we are reading. Artificial (ar'ti-fish/al) 
light is always more trying to the eyes than daylight. 
When doing close work, do not sit facing the light. 
The light should fall on the work from above and be- 
hind ; when one is writing it should come over the left 
shoulder, if he is right handed. Often simply giving 
up study and other close work at evening for a time 



152 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



will restore the eyes to good condition. Sleep during 
the hours of darkness is one of the very best remedies 

for eye weakness. If 
the eyes feel strained, 
study can be done 
with much better re- 
sults by early morn- 
ing light. 

Favoring the Eyes. 
— We should not do 
close work with the 
eyes by twilight or 
any other changing 
light. It is too trying 
for the eyes, since the 

Correct position for reading. changing light makes 

harder work for the muscles, and the light often be- 
comes entirely insufficient (m'suf-fish'ent) before we 
realize it. Reading while traveling in a car, or any 
other moving vehicle, is also very trying. The jarring 
caused by the motion of the car keeps constantly 
changing the position of the paper, and so the muscles 
of the eyes must keep working to change the focus. 

Anything we are reading should not lie flat upon the 
desk or in our laps. Try reading a page or more with 
the book flat, and then hold it up in a slanting or ver- 
tical position. The gain in vision will be so great that 




THE EYES 153 

you will surely see the wisdom of always favoring your 
eyes in this way. 

Sit in an erect position while reading, for stooping 
makes harder work for the muscles and also interferes 
with the circulation of the blood. Besides, trying to 
see in a dim light and leaning the head forward while 
reading, are likely to cause a change in the shape of the" 
eyeball and produce nearsightedness (ner-sit'ed-nes). 

Do not read while lying down, for this practice is 
very trying to the eyes. Long or severe illness of any 
kind weakens the muscles of the eyes as well as those 
of the rest of the body. Therefore one should read 
little or none while recovering from severe illness. 
The eyes of delicate children are usually weak. On 
this account they should study or read but very little. 
Staying out of school a few months or even years to get 
strong is far better, in the end, than to go to school with 
weakened body and eyes, for fear of getting behind 
other children of the same age. Little children should 
use their eyes very little for close work. 

The page we are reading should not be held any nearer 
than is necessary to make the print distinct and clear. 
Print that cannot be readily made out at a distance 
of eighteen inches, is too small to be read continuously. 
Do not read books having white glazed paper, on ac- 
count of the glare. Books should be selected that have 
plenty of space between both words and lines. This 



154 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

prevents the words or lines from seeming to run together 
as one reads. 

When the eyes feel uncomfortable, they should not 
be rubbed with the hands, since harmful bacteria may 
get into them in this way. Bathe the eyes in cool water, 
and dry them with a clean cloth. Do not wipe your 
face on a public towel. Some one who previously 
used the towel, may have had eye disease, and you 
may get the bacteria from the towel. A person having 
a discharge of any kind from the eye, should not leave 
his towel where others may chance to use it. 

Cinders in the Eye. — The eye is so sensitive that 
cinders or tiny particles of any solid will cause great dis- 
comfort if they get inside. The eyelids and their 
lashes usually protect from these by closing, even with- 
out our willing them to do so, whenever anything 
injurious comes toward them. Sometimes, however, 
cinders and other substances get by these useful guards. 
If we wait a moment, water from the tear glands will 
often wash such particles down to the lower lid, from 
which they may be readily removed. Pulling the upper 
lid down over the lower, and holding it there, will often 
help the tears in this process. 

If the particle is too firmly fixed to be removed in 
this way, an older person or a physician should be 
secured to take it out very soon, since severe injury, as 
well as discomfort, may follow, if it is allowed to re- 



THE EYES 155 

main unduly long. Any liquid containing acid, lime, 
or other alkali, or wood alcohol may severely injure the 
eye. If, by any mischance, such liquids get into the 
eye, a physician should be visited at once. 

Infants' Eyes. — Special pains should be taken to 
protect the eyes of baby brothers and sisters. They 
should not be exposed to bright light of any kind. 
When taken out for a ride, their eyes should be most 
carefully shaded from the sun. If, soon after birth, 
there happens to be a discharge from the little one's 
eyes, a physician or nurse should attend until the 
trouble is cured. Many cases of both weak sight and 
blindness have been caused by lack of attention to 
a discharge from one or both eyes when the person 
was a little baby. 

Nearsightedness. — It is great good fortune to be 
born with perfectly formed eyes. Many are not. In 
some persons, the eyeball is so deep that the rays of 
light come to a focus before reaching the retina. This 
is called nearsightedness, since persons with such eyes 
can see near objects better than at a distance. Lean- 
ing the head forward while reading, and reading too 
much by dim light, sometimes bring on nearsightedness 
by changing the form of the eyeball. This is a most 
excellent reason for avoiding both of these habits. 

Farsightedness and Astigmatism. — The eyeballs of 
some persons are so shallow that the rays of light reach 



156 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

the retina before being focused. This defect is called 
farsightedness (far'sit-ed-nes) because such eyes can see 
distant objects better than those near by. Sometimes 
the eyeball is so curved that it cannot see horizontal 
and vertical lines equally well. Since letters are made 
up of both horizontal and vertical lines, this defect, 
which is called astigmatism (a-stig'ma-tizm), makes 
reading and study more difficult. 

Squint or Cross-eye. — When one or both eyes re- 
main all of the time turned in toward the nose, the 
condition is called cross-eye. This is caused by far- 
sight or some other defect too severely taxing some 
muscles of the eye. In the beginning, cross-eye may 
sometimes be cured by glasses. If the trouble is too 
far advanced for glasses to remedy it, the oculist 
(ok'u-list) can do so by a slight operation. The dif- 
ficulty may return afterward, if glasses are not worn 
to correct the improper form of the eye. It is very 
important to have cross-eye corrected, for, in that con- 
dition, it is difficult to use both eyes at the same time. 
For this reason, the eye affected may in time lose its 
power of accurate vision. 

Nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism can 
all be largely overcome by having an oculist pre- 
scribe glasses that will correct the form of the eyeball. 
The eyes of every healthy child ought easily to dis- 
tinguish the leaves of the trees, the colors of the sky, 



THE EYES 157 

and the faces of friends at a distance on the street. 
They ought also to readily make out writing on the 
blackboard in the schoolroom, and to read good print 
from a book without discomfort. 

Glasses. — If one is healthy and strong, and his eyes 
fail to do this, he should not be satisfied until they have 
been examined by a competent oculist. If glasses are 
prescribed, he should wear them just as directed by 
the doctor. They will be some bother, of course; but 
what is that compared with the great gain in school 
work and skill in play that is sure to follow? Both 
the oculist and the spectacles may cost several dollars. 
If, however, a person with poor vision could, but for 
a moment, fully realize the gain in ability and happi- 
ness that glasses might bring, he would gladly work his 
best for months to earn them. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Strong and accurate eyesight is one of the best aids 
to happiness and success in life. 

2. Rest from reading, sewing, and other close work for 
a few days will often make tired eyes strong again. Even 
rest from close work by artificial light for a week or two will 
sometimes have the same result, 

3. Seven Ways to Favor the Eyes: — 

(a) Always have plenty of light for reading and other 

close work. 

(b) Have the light come from behind and over the left 

shoulder. 



158 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

(c) Look for a few seconds at distant objects now and 

then while reading or studying. 
id) Always sit erect and hold the head up while doing 

close work. 
(e) Read only books that have good print with plenty 

of space between the words and lines.. 
(/) Hold anything from which you are reading, up 

toward a level with the eye. 
(g) Bathe the eyes in cool water after rising each 

morning. 
4. Ten Things not to do with the Eyes: — 
(a) Never do close work facing the light. 
(6) Do not look steadily at the sun or any other bright 

light, 
(c) Do not do close work by twilight or other changing 

light. 
{d) Do not let a book or paper you are reading lie flat 

upon a table or desk, 
(e) Do not read while lying down. 
(/) Do not use the eyes for close work when the rest 

of the body is weakened by illness. 
(g) Do not hold a book or paper too near the eyes. 
(h) Do not rub the eyes. 
(i) Do not wipe your face on a public towel. 
(j) Do not allow anything that causes discomfort to 

remain in the eye. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What part of the eye corresponds to the little round 
hole which lets light into a camera? 

2. To what part of a camera does the eyeball correspond? 

3. What part of the eye corresponds to the sensitive plate 
or film of the camera? 



THE EYES 159 

4. What nerve connects the eye with the brain? 

5. Why are the plates or films of a camera often blurred 
by one who is just learning to use it? 

6. What makes the eyeball properly focus rays of light 
upon the retina? 

7. Which come to a focus more readily in properly 
formed eyes, rays of light from near-by objects or rays of 
light from distant objects? 

8. Why is it restful to the eyes now and then to look 
away at distant objects while reading or studying? 

9. Explain why rest from all close work for a few hours 
or days will often make tired eyes all right again. 

10. Why does rest from all close work by artificial light 
often have a good effect? 

11. Tell why in most rooms it is well to sit near windows 
when doing close work. 

12. Why should close work not be done by twilight? 

13. Why is it very trying to the eyes to read while riding 
on a moving vehicle? 

14. Which is the easier for the eyes, to read from some- 
thing lying flat on the desk, or from something that is held 
up toward a level with the eye? 

15. Why should one sit in an erect position and hold the 
head up while reading? 

16. Why is it well not to read while lying down? 

17. Tell why one should not read while getting well from 
severe illness. 

18. What is said about the eyes of delicate children? 

19. What print is too small to read? 

20. Why is print that has not plenty of space between 
words and lines very trying upon the eyes? 

21. Why should we not rub our eyes? 

22. Tell why it is not well to wipe your face on a public 
towel. 



160 THE BUILDING AND CAKE OF THE BODY 

23. Describe a good way to get a cinder or other particle 
out of the eye. 

24. Name three liquids that are especially injurious to 
the eyes. 

25. What special pains should be taken with the eyes 
of infants? 

26. What defect in the form of the eyeball causes near- 
sightedness, and how is this defect sometimes caused? Far- 
sightedness? 

27. Tell what is said of the cause and effect of astigma- 
tism. 

28. Tell the cause, effect, and cure of cross-eye. 

29. How may the defects of nearsightedness, farsighted- 
ness, and astigmatism often be overcome? 

30. Mention several things a properly formed eye should 
be able to see well. 

31. What may be gained by wearing glasses? 

32. Mention seven ways in which you may favor your 
eyes. 

33. Tell ten things not to do that may injure your eyes. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



THE CARE OF THE BODY 



THE EARS 

Value of Good Hearing. — People sometimes dispute 
as to whether good eyesight or good hearing is of 
the greater benefit. The one thing certain is that 
either is altogether too valuable to get along without, 
if it can possibly be kept. The pleasure of hearing 
the conversation of our friends, the joy of listening to 
music and the 



* 



^ Ctofoarl /Bony.ladyrmtfr 



many delightful 
voices of na- 
ture, are all lost 
through deaf- 
ness. It is, to 
say the least, a 
great handicap 
not to plainly 
hear our teach- 
ers and fellow-pupils in school. It is also true that 
impaired hearing unfits one for many desirable voca- 
tions (vo-ka'shtinz). 

M 161 




Ei/sfaMcrr? 



Section through the ear. 



162 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Surely, then, it is well worth while to learn how to 
protect and care for our ears. To understand the 
reasons for such care and protection, we need first to 
learn some facts about the structure and working of 
these important organs. 

Structure of the Ear. — The ear has three divisions, 
the outer, the middle, and the inner ear. The outer ear 
is the little flap of cartilage and skin called the auricle, 
which we can see and feel, and the small tube leading 
inward from it. The latter is called the auditory 
(a/di-to-ry) canal. 

The middle ear or ear drum is a very small cavity 
at the end of the auditory canal. It contains three 
tiny bones joined together to form a little bridge or 
chain. It is separated from the auditory canal by 
a thin membrane called the drumhead, often incor- 
rectly spoken of as the ear drum. In front of the 
middle ear cavity, there is an opening into a little 
passage, called the Eustachian (u-sta/ki-an) tube, 
which leads into the throat. This little passage 
serves the very useful purpose of keeping the pres- 
sure of air in the middle ear the same as that of the 
outside air. 

The inner ear is a shell-shaped hollow in one of the 
bones of the skull. It contains a fluid, and has a lining 
from which float delicate nerves which connect with 
the brain. 



THE EARS 163 

How we Hear. — Throw a stone into the water and 
watch the ripples pass from the place where it strikes. 
Sound travels in waves through the air as motion passes 
from the place where a stone falls into the water. 
These traveling sound waves are taken up by the auri- 
cle of the ear, and directed into the auditory canal to 
the middle ear, where they set the drumhead in motion. 
The motion of the drumhead is imparted to the chain 
of bones in the middle ear. This in turn sets the liquid 
of the inner ear in motion, and the nerves fastened to 
the floating soft parts therein, carry the sound to the 
brain. 

Conditions Necessary to Good Hearing. — To have 
good hearing, the auditory canal must be open and 
unobstructed; the drumhead must be in good condi- 
tion to vibrate ; the chain of bones must be free to move 
forward and backward as the drumhead vibrates; the 
liquid of the inner ear must respond freely to the 
motion of the chain of bones, and the nerves must be 
in good condition to carry the impressions (im-presh'- 
unz) to the brain. 

Stoppage of the Auditory Canal. — The auditory 
canal contains glands which secrete earwax. Earwax 
serves the useful purpose of stopping dust and small 
insects. The skin of the auditory canal grows outward, 
and so, as a rule, careful daily bathing of the ear will 
remove the wax not needed. Sometimes earwax is 



164 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

packed down by trying to swab or dig it out, and so 
sound cannot pass through the auditory canal. In 
such cases the wax should be syringed (sir'mjd) out 
by a physician or some one who knows how to do it 
without injuring the ear. After the impacted (1m- 
pakt'ed) wax is removed, the hearing will be good 
again. 

Buttons, other small articles, and even live insects 
sometimes get into the ear. There is no need for the 
alarm that such accidents often arouse, for the 
drumhead will keep anything from getting into the 
middle or inner ear, where harm can be done. However, 
one should not try to get them out with a wire or any- 
thing pointed, since that might injure the drumhead. 
The auricle should be drawn upward and downward, 
and the head held so that the ear will open downward. 
Then, if the head is shaken gently, what is inside the 
canal may drop out. If not, it may run out with 
some warm water that has been carefully syringed 
in. Should both methods fail, a physician should be 
visited without delay, as injury might, in time, be 
caused. 

Injury to the Drumhead. — If the drumhead is broken 
or injured, it will not vibrate as it should, and hence 
deafness results. Such injuries may be caused by some 
pointed article such as a pencil or wire being thrust 
into the ear by accident. On account of both eyes and 



THE EARS 



165 



ears, children should be very careful about playing with 
anything pointed. 

A loud explosion near the ear or a hard, quick slap 
on the ear may cause severe injury to the drumhead. 
Great care should be taken not to get too near giant 
firecrackers or cannon that are about to explode. 




Deafuess and other serious injuries are caused by carelessness 
in using fireworks. 

The fun and excitement of hearing the loud noise lasts 
but a moment. The deafness it may cause, will last 
for a lifetime. 

Stoppage of the Eustachian Tube. — One of the most 
common causes of injury to the drumhead is stoppage 



166 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

of the Eustachian tube. Since this tube leads from 
the throat to the ears, it is affected by colds just as 
are other parts of the air passages. Continuous mouth 
breathing, frequent colds, and other causes often so 
inflame the Eustachian tube as to stop up its entrance. 
The pressure of the air of the inner tube is then less 
than that of outside air. On that account the pres- 
sure of air from outside breaks the drumhead, causing 
deafness. If we breathe pure air, keep free from colds, 
and avoid the mouth-breathing habit, we shall keep the 
Eustachian tube open and healthy. 

Snuffing any liquid violently (vi'6-lent-ly) through 
the nose, or jumping from high places, while in swim- 
ming, without holding the nose, may, in time, cause 
stoppage of the Eustachian tube, and so should be 
avoided. One should also be very careful to get water 
out of the ears after going in swimming, for not doing 
so may cause injury. 

Deafness, roaring, and other unusual sounds in the 
ear are signs that the Eustachian tube may be stopped. 
A vigorous blowing of the nose will often open the tube 
and give relief. If either deafness or these unusual 
sounds continue after a cold, measles, scarlet fever, 
or any other disease, an aurist (a'nst) should be at 
once consulted. 

Earache. — This is a serious sign that should not be 
allowed to continue long without consulting an aurist. 



THE EARS 167 

It may sometimes be cured by placing a hot-water bag 
or hot cloths back of and below the auricle. Simply 
breathing into the ear will sometimes soothe a slight 
attack. Warm oil or other liquid should not be poured 
into the ear to relieve pain, unless so advised by a 
physician. 

A Discharge of Pus from the Ear. — This is also a 
serious symptom that should not be neglected. Nor is 
deafness the only danger to be feared from such a cause. 
If the pus happens to come from within the drum, the 
trouble may spread to the inner ear and brain, and death 
itself result. 

Other Causes of Deafness. — It should also be re- 
membered that persons have been made deaf by 
taking frequent large doses of quinine (kwi'nin). 
On this account one should be very careful in the use 
of this drug. Deafness is also caused by working where 
one almost constantly hears the loud clatter of ma- 
chinery. Any one engaged in such work should wear 
ear protectors to keep out the sound. 

Testing the Ears. — Persons are often deaf a long 
time in one ear without knowing it, for they manage 
to hear well enough with the other ear to get along. 
As disease may readily spread from one ear to another, 
it is important to be sure that both are healthy. One 
can do this by now and then testing the ears. The 
low-spoken voice should be heard at a distance of 



168 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

twenty feet. A watch with a loud tick can be heard 
about three feet from the ear, and one with a low tick 
about one foot away. If these sounds cannot be 
distinctly heard by one ear, when the other is covered, 
it is a sign that an aurist should be consulted. 

Discomforts of Deafness. — If persons with good 
hearing could but realize what discomfort and real loss 
attend deafness, they would always take the greatest 
pains to protect and care for their ears. Many really 
bright children are thought dull in school, because poor 
hearing makes them unable to understand. If, by 
some good fortune, the difficulty is removed, such chil- 
dren often get on as well as the best. 

Often deaf people have roaring and other sounds in 
the ear nearly all the time. This is not only disagree- 
able, but is likely to cause nervousness. Very deaf 
persons cannot hear themselves speak, and so their 
voices are either very loud or very low. It is difficult 
for them to enjoy society, because they can neither 
hear nor be sure that they are making others under- 
stand. For these and other reasons, the deaf are often 
shy and unhappy. Tell a deaf person how much bother 
it is to properly care for and protect your ears. He 
will answer, " There is nothing so hard that I would 
not try my best to do it, if it would only bring back 
the hearing that I used to have." 



THE EARS 169 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

Six Things to do in caring for the Ears: — 

1. Bathe the ears carefully each day to remove waste 
skin, dirt, and earwax. 

2. Breathe through the nose, and keep free from colds. 

3. Always get the water out of your ears after going in 
swimming. 

4. If you have roaring or other unusual sounds in the ear, 
consult an aurist. 

5. If you have either continuous earache or discharge 
of pus from the ear, consult an aurist without delay. 

6. Wear ear protectors, if you work where there is a 
continual loud clatter of machinery. 

Ten Things to avoid doing in caring for the Ears: — 

1 . Never put pencils or other pointed articles in your ears. 

2. Do not try to swab or dig out earwax. 

3. If an insect or any small article gets in your ear, do 
not be unduly frightened, and do not try to remove it with 
a wire or anything pointed. 

4. Do not get near giant firecrackers or cannon that are 
about to explode. 

5. Never strike any one on the ears. 

6. Do not snuff any liquid violently up the nose. 

7. While in swimming, do not jump from high places 
without holding the nose. 

8. Never pour warm oil or any liquid into your ears, 
unless so advised by a doctor. 

9. Do not take either frequent or large doses of quinine. 
10. Do not work amid the loud clatter of machinery with- 
out wearing ear protectors. 



170 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

♦ QUESTIONS 

1. Name the three divisions of the ear. 

2. What is the outer ear? 

3. What is the middle ear sometimes called? 

4. Tell what separates the auditory canal from the middle 
ear. 

5. What does the middle ear contain? 

6. What tube leads from the middle ear to the throat, 
and what useful purpose does it serve? 

7. Tell all you can about the middle ear. 

8. Describe the inner ear. 

9. Tell how we hear. 

10. Mention several conditions necessary to good hearing. 

11. What glands are in the auditory canal, and what is 
the use of the wax they secrete? 

12. Why should this wax not be swabbed or dug out? 

13. What does impacted earwax sometimes cause? 

14. How may impacted earwax be removed? 

15. Why is there no need for great alarm from insects 
or small articles getting into the ear? 

16. How should they be removed? 

17. Tell why pencils and other pointed articles may 
injure the ear. 

18. What injury to the ear may be caused by a loud 
explosion? 

19. Tell how stoppage of the Eustachian tube may injure 
the ears. 

20. Mention some causes of the stoppage of the Eustachian 
tube. 

21. Give some signs of the stoppage of the Eustachian 
tube. 

22. In what simple way may the stoppage of the Eusta- 
chian tube sometimes be relieved? 



THE EARS 171 

23. Tell what is said of earache. 

24. Why is the discharge of pus from the ear a serious 
symptom? 

25. Why should one be very careful in the use of quinine? 

26. Tell in what kind of work it is well to wear ear pro- 
tectors. 

27. Explain why it is well to be sure that we are hearing 
through both ears. 

28. Tell how to test the ears. 

29. Why are some really bright children dull in school? 

30. Mention some of the discomforts of deafness. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE CARE OF THE BODY 

THE VOICE 

The Voice — Value of Voice Training. — Some people 
are paid good salaries for singing in choirs. Famous 
singers receive what seem to be fabulous sums for one 
concert. Often public speakers get large prices for a 
lecture, largely because of their excellent use of good 
voices. No one will question that care and pains in 
training the voice have well repaid such persons. 

Even singing well enough to please our friends and 
to enjoy taking part in singing, ourselves, is a great 
benefit, since few things count more toward taking 
one into good society and giving him healthful enjoy- 
ment than taking part in and liking good music. Abil- 
ity to use the voice well is a great help in expressing 
one's thoughts in public; and this power adds much to 
the usefulness of any citizen. Simply for these reasons, 
then, careful training of the voice is well worth while. 

But leaving singing and public speaking out of the 
question, using the voice correctly is of great value to 
everybody. There are few things that may make one 

172 



THE VOICE 



173 



more winning or do more to help him to favor than a 
pleasing, well-modulated (mod'u-lat-ed) voice in con- 
versation. The effect of a handsome face may be al- 
most spoiled by a harsh or shrill voice. So, too, a 
gentle, refined voice may make a 
person with a plain face very at- 
tractive. 

Without question good English 
and a pleasing voice are among 
the most marked evidences (ev'i- 
dens-ez) of good education and re- 
fined home and school associations 
(as-so-si-a/shtinz). If the voice 
were given one-twentieth of the 
attention in school that English 
receives, there would be great im- 
provement, since care and thought 
in childhood would, in most cases, 
prevent harsh or shrill tones. 

The Vocal Cords and Sound. — 
The larynx, the " Adam's apple " ^^^^m^m 
that we can feel at the top of our lage; ^windpipe. 
windpipe in the throat, contains the vocal cords. 
They are two little flat bands of membrane running 
along each side within the larynx, and from back to 
front. Except when we use the voice, they lie close 
to the sides of the larynx, and are not affected by the 




The larynx and wind- 
pipe, ventral view, b, b' ', 
bronchi ; c, cricoid carti- 



174 



THE BUILDING ANB CARE OF THE BODY 



air passing from the lungs. When we are using the 
voice, certain muscles cause these cords to tighten so 
that they move toward each other until there is but a 
narrow space between them. The air passing from the 
lungs over the stretched cords causes them to vibrate 
(vi'brat), thus producing sound. A slight current of 
air makes a little sound. A heavy current of air pro- 
duces a loud sound. 

.£p/g/ott/s I ^^&¥ m 




The larynx, top view (Zuppke). A and a, the vocal cords in resting posi- 
tion; B and b, the vocal cords in position for producing voice. 

Pitch of Tone. — The thick strings of a violin and 
similar instruments (m'stru-ments) give low tones, and 
the thin strings, high tones. In strings of the same 
thickness a tight string gives a higher tone than a 
loose string, and a short string gives a higher tone 
than a long one. 

The same is true of the human voice. Those who 
have long or thick vocal cords have low and heavy 



THE VOICE 175 

voices. Persons with short or thin vocal cords have 
higher and less heavy voices. The larynx of men 
is usually larger than that of women. Hence their 
vocal cords are longer, and their voices have a lower 
pitch. A boy's voice changes because his larynx sud- 
denly becomes much larger, and his vocal cords are 
lengthened. Colds sometimes cause the vocal cords 
to thicken, and so the tones become hoarse. 

Care of the Voice. — While a boy's voice is changing, 
he should sing very little. It is well for all not to sing 
much when the vocal cords are affected by a cold. 
Always avoid straining the voice by singing too high, 
too loudly, or too long. With regular practice one 
may, in time, reach the desired note or volume with- 
out straining. Many good voices have been spoiled 
by carelessness in these respects. 

A pleasing voice in conversation may be formed 
mainly by taking pains not to speak too loudly or too 
high. If one begins when quite young, it will soon 
become his habit, and there will be little need to think 
about it later. If there happens to be a deaf person 
in the family, special pains will be required not to use 
the same tone with others that it is necessary to employ 
with the one who is deaf. It often happens in such 
families that nearly every member speaks in unpleas- 
antly loud tones. This may, however, easily be 
avoided if one will but think. 



176 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Breath Control and Voice. — The best singers and 
public speakers use deep breathing. Thus they have 
plenty of air in their lungs, and having developed strong 
breathing muscles, they readily control it in speaking 
and singing. From this we see that developing our 
lungs and breathing muscles gives us better control 
of our voices. So, also, exercising and training the 
voice is excellent exercise for the lungs. 

Speaking Plainly. — Many persons do not speak 
plainly because they fail to open their mouths wide 
enough for the sound to pass out freely. They also 
neglect to make such use of the tongue, teeth, and lips 
as will sound the final syllables and letters. In speak- 
ing, the mouth should be opened so that at least two 
fingers, one above the other, can be placed between 
the teeth. Through practice in saying words and sen- 
tences that end in final g% s's, £ ? s, d's, and other let- 
ters and syllables that are difficult, much power may be 
gained in speaking distinctly. 

Quality of Tone. — The quality of tone depends not 
only upon the length and thickness of the vocal cords, 
but also upon the shape of the roof of the mouth. 
Many persons speak with a more or less thin nasal 
tone. We say that they speak through their noses. 
As a matter of fact, this is often caused by the nose 
being stopped up by adenoids or something similar. 
Sometimes it is merely a bad habit that can be cor- 
rected by being careful. 



THE VOICE 177 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Pleasing voice and distinctness of speech are marked 
signs of education and refinement. By taking pains to avoid 
loudness and shrillness of tones in conversation most persons 
can have such a voice. 

2. Distinctness of speech may be gained by opening the 
mouth when using the voice, and by gaining facility in the 
use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, through practicing words 
and sentences containing final s's, t's, d's, and other difficult 
sounds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell why being able to sing well is often a great 
benefit. 

2. State how a pleasing voice in conversation is of great 
benefit to anybody. 

3. Tell what is said about the vocal cords. 

4. What causes the vocal cords to make sound? 

5. Tell about the pitch of tone in violin strings. 

6. Why are men's voices heavier than women's? 

7. What causes a boy's voice to change? 

8. Mention some ways in which voices are often injured. 

9. Tell how a pleasing voice in conversation may be 
formed. 

10. If there is a deaf person in the family, why is it nec- 
essary to take special pains about one's tone ? 

11. State some causes of indistinct speaking, and tell 
how one can improve in these respects. 

12. Besides the vocal cords, on what does quality of tone 
depend? 

13. What is said about speaking through the nose? 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE CARE OF THE BODY 

CLOTHING, HAIR, AND NAILS. 

Clothing. — Clothing helps to keep us warm because 
it prevents the heat of the body from escaping too 
rapidly. Air is a poor conductor of heat. Therefore 
loosely woven clothing, such as woolen, is warmer than 
garments made of cotton, linen, or some closer weave. 
For a similar reason, two thin garments or blankets 
are warmer than one of the same weight as both to- 
gether. Dark colors attract heat. Hence light-colored 
clothes are cooler in summer than those of a darker 
color. It is important to wear heavy enough clothing 
to keep us comfortably (kum'fert-a-bly) warm. At 
any season of the year, however, it is a mistake to 
" bundle- up " with too heavy or too many clothes. 
They not only keep the body too warm, but also pre- 
vent the air from doing its part in cleansing the skin. 

Underclothing. — Whatever is worn next to the skin 
becomes soiled, and so should be readily washed. For 
this reason as well as to help in keeping warm we should 
wear underclothing. Woolen underwear is good because 

178 



THE CLOTHING 



179 



it does not allow bodily heat to pass too fast, and also 
because it readily absorbs perspiration. Porous or mesh 
cotton or linen underwear is warmer and better than 
closely woven garments of the same material. 

Shoes and Rubbers. — Shoes of pliable leather are 
more comfortable than those of stiffer material. Nei- 
ther very narrow nor extremely wide shoes should be 
worn; but one should buy shoes that are like the nat- 





An unhygienic shoe. 



A hygienic shoe. 



ural shape of his feet. High, narrow heels are injuri- 
ous, and should not be worn. 

Rubbers should be removed when one goes indoors 
to remain any length of time. If left on, they make 
the feet too warm and often cause one to catch cold 
upon going out into the cold air. 

Good Taste in Dress. — Neatness and good taste in 
dress are without doubt important helps to success 
in life. Like a pleasing voice and distinct speech, they 
aid both in giving a good first impression (lm-presh'un) 
and likewise in retaining respect. Our clothes should 



180 THE BUILDING AND CABE OF THE BODY 

always be clean and tidy. The colors we wear should 
always be in harmony (har'mo-ni). The materials 
used should be chosen on account of their beauty and 
simplicity (sim-plis'ity), and not because they are 
of a striking or gaudy pattern. It should not be 
forgotten that both hat and shoes are conspicuous 
(kon-spik'u-us) parts of one's dress. They should 
be kept neat and clean by frequent and thorough 
brushing. 

Growth of the Hair. — The skin or covering of the head 
is called the scalp. Each hair grows from a tiny root 
in the scalp. It is also supplied with oil by tiny oil 
glands. Like other parts of the body, the scalp is 
supplied with nutriment by the blood. It also needs 
to be cleansed by the air. Hence anything that inter- 
feres with the circulation of blood to the scalp or that 
keeps air from the scalp will affect the healthy growth 
of the hair. It is also true that if the pores of the 
scalp are allowed to become stopped up, it will become 
diseased. 

Care of the Hair. — Hair may be washed daily, but 
soap should not be used on it more than once a week. 
When soap is used, it should be thoroughly washed out. 
Frequent vigorous brushing and rubbing of the scalp 
help the circulation of blood, and so tend to keep 
the scalp healthy ; they also help to make the oil glands 
active. Hair oils or pastes should not be used, because 



THE HAIR 



181 



they tend to make the scalp dirty and to stop up the 
pores. 

In a previous chapter we read that the skin is con- 
stantly shedding little scales. In the scalp these scales 
are called dandruff (dan'druf). Bathing and the 
friction (frik'shun) of 
clothing readily re- 
move these scales from 
the skin of the body. 
The hair of the scalp 
helps to retain them. 
Daily thorough comb- 
ing and brushing the 
hair is necessary to re- 
move dandruff. If 
dandruff is not re- 
moved, the scalp is 
very likely to become 
unhealthy. 

Baldness. — Bald- 
ness is thought to be 
largely caused by wearing too heavy and too tight hats, 
since they both interfere with the circulation of blood 
to the scalp, and keep air and sunshine aw T ay as well. 
Not removing dandruff is also a cause. By going with- 
out a hat as much as possible, by wearing hats and 
caps of light weight, and by frequent brushing and 
combing the hair, baldness may be prevented. 




Caring for the hair. 



182 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Boys whose relatives are bald are perhaps more 
likely to lose their hair than others. They should take 
special pains in the matter of keeping the scalp well 
cleansed and exercised, and in wearing light hats. Even 
after the hair has begun to fall out, vigorously rubbing 
the scaip with the ends of the fingers several times 
daily will restore it to a healthy state. This practice 
is also excellent before the hair begins to fall out. 

The hair both protects the head and adds to its 
beauty. It is a fine thing to have a good head of hair 
as long as we live, since it adds to our appearance of 
youth and strength. It is not hard to understand how 
to keep the scalp healthy. If boys could look into the 
future and see themselves bald, or with good heads of 
hair, they would surely think a little daily care the best 
kind of an investment. It is simply another case of 
forming a daily habit that will count. 

The Nails. — The nails are the hardened parts of the 
outer skin (epidermis) that protect the ends of the 
fingers and toes. They aid the fingers in picking things 
up, and likewise add to the beauty of the hands and 
feet. 

Care of the Nails. — Toe nails should be cleaned and 
trimmed at least when one takes the weekly warm bath. 
If allowed to become too long, they grow into the flesh 
and cause discomfort and pain. 

Finger nails should be kept short by trimming or 



THE NAILS 



183 



filing (filing). When so cared for, it is easier to keep 
the dirt out, though even then they should be cleaned 
several times a 
day. It is well 
to form the hab- 
it of caring for 
the finger nails 
whenever we 
wash our hands. 
If at such times 
we also gently 
push back the 
skin from the 
nails, hangnails 
well-kept finger 




Caring for the nails. 



may be easily prevented. Clean, 
nails are signs of good breeding 
that all should possess. As in many other particulars, 
the early formation of the right habit is the chief 
thing. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Tidiness and good taste in dress are excellent signs of 
proper self-respect and decent consideration (kon-sid'er-a- 
shun) for others. 

2. We should form the habit of caring for the finger nails 
whenever we wash the hands. Hangnails may be prevented 
by pushing the skin back from the nails when the hands are 
bathed. 

3. Hair may be kept healthy by keeping the scalp clean 
and by wearing nothing on the head that will interfere with 



184 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

the free circulation of blood to the roots of the scalp, or the 
free access of air to its outer surface. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Tell why loosely woven clothing is warmer than that 
which is tightly woven. 

2. Why are two light garments warmer than one of the 
same weight as both ? 

3. Why is dark clothing warmer than that of the same 
weight of a lighter color ? 

4. Tell what is said of " bundling up." 

5. What is said of underclothing ? 

6. Why are neatness and good taste in dress helps to 
success in life ? 

7. Tell what materials to choose for our clothes. 

8. Give two uses of finger nails. 

9. Tell what is said about the care of toe nails; of finger 
nails. 

10. State how hair grows and by what it is supplied with 
oil. 

11. What prevents the hair from being healthy ? 

12. Mention several things one should do to help keep 
the scalp healthy. 

13. What is said of dandruff ? 

14. Mention the causes of baldness. 

15. Tell how to prevent baldness. 

16. Why should we try to have a good head of hair as 
long as we live? 



CHAPTER XXVI 
THE CARE OF THE BODY 

COMMON ACCIDENTS 

There are many common accidents that injure the 
body, and sometimes even cause death. By using 
care and good sense it is possible to avoid many of 
these. In spite of the best of care, however, it may be 
our misfortune to meet with some of them. It is well, 
therefore, to know a few simple remedies, which, if 
used in time, may be of service. 

Bruises. — These are caused by falls or by the flesh 
being struck by something blunt. The part of the body 
struck usually swells; it also becomes black and blue 
on account of the bursting blood vessels. This dis- 
coloring may be prevented, to some extent, by apply- 
ing cloths wet in hot or cold water every two or three 
minutes. This treatment also helps to reduce the 
swelling. 

Cuts. — Any cut through the skin should be at once 
cleansed, and covered with a bandage or plaster. If 
it is not, harmful bacteria may get in and cause serious 
injury. A cut from a rusty nail, or anything else that 
is dirty, may produce fatal results. At the first sign 

185 



186 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

that anything severe or unusual is developing from 
such a cut, a physician should be visited. If a cut is so 
deep that there is a large flow of blood, the cleanest 
cloth at hand should be pressed upon the wound, and 
one should hurry to a doctor, or send for one. 

Burns and Scalds. — Burns and scalds are commonly 
caused by fire, hot water, acids, or alkalies. If one's 
clothing catches fire, the worst possible thing to do is 
to run. The best thing is to smother the fire with a 
rug, cloak, or other thick garment. Linen cloths 
soaked in a mixture of soda and water are excellent for 
burns. Cloths soaked in oil or smeared with vaseline 
may be applied afterward. Touching a charged electric 
wire causes severe burns and sometimes death. It 
should always be avoided. In case of any severe burn 
a doctor should be consulted. 

Effects of Cold. — Partly frozen noses, ears, fingers, 
and toes are more or less common in a cold climate. 
If proper care is not taken, much discomfort and bother 
may follow. The frozen part should be rubbed in 
snow or cold water until it begins to tingle and get red. 
Both the tingling and the change in color are signs that 
the circulation of blood, which was stopped, has been 
restored. One should not go near a stove or other warm 
place until the frost has been removed. 

Escaping Gas. — Many persons have been killed by 
breathing escaping gas. Before going to bed, one 



COMMON ACCIDENTS 187 

should always take pains to see that gas burning in 
either chandelier or stove in the sleeping room is fully- 
turned off. People, not used to gas, sometimes make 
the mistake of blowing it out. 

Drowning. — Both boys and girls should consider 
swimming a very important part of their education, 
since it is the best way to prevent drowning. It may 
be useful to know that it takes very little to prevent 
one from sinking, if he tries to keep only his nose above 
water. One should never hang heavily to the neck 
or body of a person who is trying to save him from 
drowning. By so doing, he may drown both himself 
and his rescuer (res'ku-er). By hanging on lightly 
and merely keeping the nose above water, the work of 
rescue is made far easier. 

In case a boat tips over, those overboard should not 
try to climb on top of it, for by so doing it may be sunk. 
Instead, they should all take hold of the boat lightly, 
simply trying to keep their noses above water till help 
appears. 

Fainting. — Several conditions produce fainting. As 
the cause is always too little blood in the head, the 
person who has fainted should be laid flat on his back. 
The clothing about the neck should also be loosened, 
so that the blood may flow to the head more freely. 
People should not crowd around a fainting person, 
since that keeps the air away, and he needs all that open 



188 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 




COMMON ACCIDENTS 189 

doors or windows can give. Water sprinkled on the 
face and smelling salts and ammonia held to the nose 
are both helpful. 

Sting of Bees. — The stings of bees usually pain at 
first and cause rapid swelling. As a rule, they can be 
relieved by bathing the part in a strong mixture of 
soda and water or in ammonia. 

Poisons. — Poisoning is caused by taking certain 
drugs, eating foods in which poison has developed, 
and in various other ways. If one becomes poisoned, 
a doctor should be sent for at once. Until his arrival, 
relief may be sought through vomiting. 

Drinking several glasses of warm water and salt, or a 
mixture of a half teaspoonful of mustard and a glass 
of water, and following it with several glasses of warm 
water, will usually cause free vomiting. 

Some plants are poisonous. Neither the leaves, 
roots, nor fruit of any plants should be eaten, unless 
one knows them to be harmless. Toadstools are among 
the common poisonous plants. Since they resemble 
mushrooms, which are good to eat, they are sometimes 
gathered and eaten by mistake. 

Poison ivy is a vine that grows in the woods and 
along fences. It bears its leaves in clusters of three, 
and each leaf has three distinct leaflets. When this 
plant comes in contact with the skin of some persons, 
it causes painful swelling. Others are harmed very 



190 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

little by it. A mixture of one-fourth of an ounce of 
borax and two ounces each of glycerine and water fre- 
quently applied is an excellent remedy. Witch-hazel 
is also good. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Cloths wet in cold or hot water every two minutes 
and placed on a bruise will help prevent both discoloring 
and swelling. 

2. Any cut through the skin should be at once cleansed 
and covered to prevent harmful bacteria from getting in. 

3. Cloths dipped in a mixture of soda and water are 
excellent to put on a burn. 

4. The best way to remove frost from any part of the 
body is to rub it with snow or cold water. One should not 
go nea a stove or other warm place until the frost is removed 
and the flesh begins to tingle. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Mention some common causes of bruises. 

2. Tell two effects of a bruise. 

3. Describe a good way to treat a bruise. 

4. Why should a cut through the skin be cleansed and 
covered? 

5. What is said of cuts from a rusty nail? 

6. What is it well to do in case of a deep cut? 

7. State several ways in which burns are caused. 

8. Tell what one should not do if his clothing happens 
to catch fire, and also what is best to do in such a case. 

9. What is a simple but excellent remedy for a burn? 

10. Why should one not touch a charged electric wire? 

11. Why should we be very careful not to get acids or 
alkalies on the skin? 



COMMON ACCIDENTS 191 

12. Tell how to treat a part of the body that is partly 
frozen. 

13. What care should be taken by those who burn gas, 
and why? 

14. Why should it be a part of every child's education to 
learn to swim? 

15. Tell the easiest way to keep afloat in the water. 

16. Tell what not to do when a person is trying to save 
you from drowning. 

17. Why should persons who have been tipped out of a 
boat, not climb from the water on top of it? 

18. Tell why a fainting person should be laid flat on the 
back. 

19. What else may be done to relieve one who has fainted? 

20. What is said of bee stings? 

21. Tell two good ways of causing one to vomit freely. 

22. Why should neither the leaves, roots, or fruit of plants 
be eaten unless we know that they are harmless? 

23. Tell what is said of toadstools; of poison ivy. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
THE CARE OF THE BODY 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 

Any one who reads the death notices in the paper of 
a great city, will be surprised at the small number of 
people who live to old age. The great majority die 
in childhood or in middle life. Many deaths are due to 
diseases caused by the growth of minute plants or ani- 
mals in the body; and these might often be prevented 
if people but had the knowledge, and knew how to 
profit by it. 

Disease germs or microbes are minute animals called 
"protozoa (pro'to-zo'a), or tiny plants called bacteria, 
that get into the body, and by multiplying rapidly, 
cause disease. They are too small to be seen without 
a microscope, — so small, in fact, that many thousands 
can be in a space no larger than a drop of water. They 
multiply by dividing into two parts about every half 
hour or more, and each part becoming a complete germ, 
and soon multiplying itself in the same way. Thus one 
germ can develop into several million in the course 
of a day, if conditions are favorable. Malaria is one of 
the diseases commonly caused by protozoa. Con- 
sumption, and all diseases of the lungs and throat ; 

192 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 193 

typhoid fever, and many other diseases are caused by 
various kinds of bacteria. 

Important Facts about Disease Germs. — As a rule, 
they cannot multiply rapidly enough to do harm in 
healthy, vigorous body tissue. Hence keeping strong 
and vigorous through the use of pure air, nourishing 
food, exercise, and rest is the best way to prevent their 
doing harm. They usually get started when one's 
vitality is reduced through too hard work, loss of sleep, 
or lack of pure air and good food. Outside of the body 
boiling water will kill them. So also will a solution 
(so-lu'shun) of three teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid to 
a glass of water. Sunlight often destroys them. Some 
can live for a long time in water or in damp places. 
They also keep alive in dust and dirt. 

How Disease Germs Spread. — In consumption, 
pneumonia (nu-mo'ni-a), colds, diphtheria (dif-the'- 
ri-a), and all diseases of the air passages, the germs are 
in the sputum ejected by the patient. Particles of this 
may fly into the faces or upon the clothing of others 
when one coughs. It may also alight upon the floor 
or furniture, and be blown about in dust or air, thus 
being breathed in later by others. The patient should 
always have a handkerchief in front of his mouth when 
he coughs; he should also expectorate (eks-pek'to-rat) 
into a pasteboard cup that can be burned each day. 
All handkerchiefs, clothing, dishes, and anything else 



194 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

used by the patient , should be kept by themselves 
and washed in boiling water. Rugs, carpets, heavy 
curtains, and other furnishings likely to retain germs, 
should be removed from the sick room. 

In typhoid fever and some other diseases, the germs 
are in the waste matter that comes from the intestines 
of the patient. Hence these diseases are often spread 
by drinking water from wells or springs that drain 
outhouses, or from sewage-laden streams. 

In scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, and other dis- 
eases the infecting germs seem to come from the skin 
of the patient. Sometimes they are got by touching 
or being touched by the sick person, or by touching 
something that he has handled or worn. Often they 
are carried in clothing from one home to another. 

Milk as a Germ Carrier. — Consumption germs may 
be in the milk of cows that have the disease. Scarlet 
fever and similar germs may get into the milk from the 
hands or clothing of the milker or those who prepare it 
for market. Typhoid fever germs may get into milk 
in the water that dishonest dealers use to adulterate it. 

How to avoid Disease Germs. — Protect yourself 
from the sputum of all persons ill with consumption, 
colds, and other diseases of the air passages. Do 
not drink out of the same cup used by others without 
carefully rinsing it. Do not put into your mouth any- 
thing that has been in the mouth of another. Be 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 



195 



careful not to allow your hand to rub against railings 
or other things handled by many people. Do not rub 
your eyes. Always wash your hands before eating. 
Boil drinking water, if there is any question as to its 
purity. Keep away from all places where there is any 
contagious disease. 

In furnishing a 
house, hardwood floors 
or grained floors and 
rugs are more hygienic 
than floors covered 
with carpet. Carpets 
must be swept. Rugs 
can be taken out of 
doors to clean. In 
dusting, one should 
use moist cloths to 
prevent dust from fly- 
ing. If water will 
injure the furniture, dusting cloths should be 
moistened in liquid veneer or some similar liquid. 
Germs are likely to be in dust. Therefore the less 
dust stirred up in a tfoom, the smaller the number of 
germs in the air its occupants breathe. Above all, 
through the use of pure air, nutritious food, pure 
water, exercise, and rest, keep your vitality so high 
that germs cannot multiply in your body. 




Dusting with a cloth moistened in liquid 
veneer or some similar preparation. 






196 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

The House Fly. — Children are often afraid of bees, 
and not without cause, for their sting is painful. Com- 
pared with bees, however, house flies do far greater 
harm to the body because they carry disease germs. 

By use of the microscope, it has been found that as 
many as 6,500,000 bacteria may be on a single fly, and 
the average number is 1,250,000. Among these, there 
may be typhoid or cholera germs from the sewer or 
privy vault, tubercle bacilli from the cuspidor, or 
germs from a sore or other disease-infected spot. 
These may be deposited on food, on the nipple of the 
baby's bottle, on the lips of a sleeping person, or 
wherever the fly alights. By any of these routes, 
the germs may get within the body and cause dis- 
ease. 

The house fly breeds in manure and other filth. 
Therefore manure should be kept in a pit or vault that 
can be screened ; privy vaults should also be screened ; 
lime or oil should be frequently sprinkled on such pits 
or vaults. Garbage should be kept in covered recep- 
tacles (re-sep'ta-k'lz) and burned or buried, if not 
carted away. Dead animals, straw, paper, or anything 
else that decays, should not be allowed to lie around 
the premises. The sewerage pipes should be kept in 
the best condition. Lime or kerosene should be fre- 
quently sprinkled in drains. If flies are seen in a 
home, one may be sure that the breeding place is 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 197 

near-by filth. It may be in the cuspidor, behind the 
door, or in a neighboring barn. 

Doors and windows that may be much opened 
should be kept screened in warm weather. If one 
cannot afford screens for all such openings, those of 
the kitchen and dining room are the most important. 
Any flies that get into a room should be killed. Great 
pains should be taken to keep flies from the sick. 
Food exposed for sale in places where flies can get to 
it, should not be bought. In every way, all should be 
awake to the fact that the fly is a positive enemy to 
life and health, and do their part in exterminating 
(eks-ter'mi-nat-mg) him. 

The Mosquito. — This insect helps in spreading 
malaria, and so is an enemy to health. He breeds in 
moist or swampy places. For this reason, yards and 
neighborhoods should be kept free from pools, swamps, 
marshes, and other moist places. If oil is poured on 
such places, it prevents the breeding of mosquitoes. 

Children's Diseases. — Scarlet fever, measles, mumps, 
whooping cough, and chicken pox are some of the 
diseases that are much more common to children than 
to adults. All of these diseases are taken by being 
with those who have them, by handling something that 
they have made use of, or by taking the germs from 
some one else who has done one or both of these 
things. 









198 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Scarlet Fever. — This disease often begins with a 
sore throat. Chills and headache may also be present. 
A fine scarlet rash appears first on the neck and chest, 
and then spreads uniformly over the rest of the body. 
The skin is hot and dry, and in severe cases the fever 
is very high. 

Measles. — The beginning of measles resembles that 
of a severe cold. Often there is repeated sneezing and 
a discharge from the nose. The eyes may be red and 
watery. The rash appears on the face and neck. 
It comes in patches, the skin between appearing 
healthy, but afterward spreads over the entire body. 

Many children die of both scarlet fever or measles, 
especially the former. Deafness, weakness of the eyes, 
and many other serious permanent troubles, often 
follow each. For these reasons, they should be care- 
fully avoided. 

Diphtheria. — In diphtheria, there are white patches 
on the inside of the throat. Often there is difficulty in 
swallowing. Like scarlet fever and measles, it needs 
the immediate attention of a physician. Recently 
an antitoxin (an'ti-tox'm) has been discovered, the 
prompt use of which causes this disease to be fatal 
much less often than it used to be. 

Chicken Pox. — In chicken pox a rash usually ap- 
pears, first on the body and then on the head. This 
may be preceded by slight fever and vomiting. In a 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 199 

few days, the blisters of rash dry up; then they scab 
and peel off. As a rule, one is not very ill with this 
disease if he keeps from catching cold. 

Whooping Cough. — This can always be told by 
severe coughing and the well-known whoop that always 
attends it. The disease sometimes lasts a long time 
and is very trying and disagreeable. For these reasons 
one should try to avoid taking it by not playing with 
children who have the disease. No effort should be 
spared to keep a baby from getting whooping cough. 

Mumps. — In this disease the glands below the ear 
swell up, and are so sore that one cannot eat or swallow 
with comfort. Both sides of the throat may swell at 
the same time, but more often one side is followed in a 
few days by the other. One should stay quietly at 
home until the swelling disappears, and be careful not 
to catch cold. 

Some people think that some or all of these children's 
diseases are bound to be had sometime, and that child- 
hood is the best period. This is a great mistake. 
It is not only far better, but also perfectly possible, not 
to have any of them. 

Smallpox and Vaccination. — Before the practice of 
vaccination (vak'si-na/shun) was begun by Dr. Jenner, 
of England, in 1798, smallpox was one of the most 
terrible of plagues. In England and Wales, on the 
average, 3000 persons of every 1,000,000 died of small- 



200 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

pox. Less than one hundred years later the entire 
number of deaths from smallpox in these countries in 
one year was only fifteen . 

In many places, health officers require children to be 
vaccinated when they enter school, and a second time 
some years later. Parents often oppose this, fearing 
injury to children. If a child is healthy, a sore arm for 
a few days is, as a rule, the only unpleasant result. 
Surely the remarkable results which history shows to 
have been accomplished through vaccination should 
justify this practice. 

Consumption (tuberculosis [tu-ber'cu-lo'sis] of the 
lungs). — It is estimated that twelve people out of 
every hundred die of this disease. In one year in New 
York State almost twice as many people died of con- 
sumption as of scarlet fever, measles, smallpox, typhoid 
fever, diphtheria, croup, and whooping cough together. 
Indeed, one need not wonder that consumption is often 
called the " Great White Plague." 

The Cause of Consumption. — Some people think 
that consumption is caused by a cold. The cause, 
however, is farther back than that. The food and air 
taken into the body has not produced enough vitality. 
Therefore bacteria that have got in have been able to 
increase rapidly Their rapid increase has produced 
not only the cough but also the loss of flesh, weakness, 
fever, night sweats, and other symptoms that attend 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 201 

the disease. One great difficulty in fighting consump- 
tion is that people think they have only a cold until 
the bacteria have too good a start to be easily stopped. 

The Prevention of Consumption. — The very best 
way to prevent consumption is to keep one's vitality 
high through the use of abundant pure, cool air, plain, 
nourishing food, vigorous exercise, and sufficient rest. 
Then if germs do get into the body, they cannot 
multiply. Of course one should also avoid taking the 
germs, as far as possible. 

Children of consumptive parents, narrow-chested 
people, and those whose work is indoors, have less power 
to resist consumption germs than have others. They 
should take special pains to sleep with wide-open win- 
dows, to eat only nourishing food, and to practice deep- 
breathing exercises at least twice a day. If these 
three things are faithfully and regularly done, almost 
any one can keep from being a victim of the " Great 
White Plague." 

The Cure of Consumption. — No medicine will cure 
consumption. Being out of doors in daytime; sleep- 
ing out of doors, or indoors with the best possible ven- 
tilation, at night; eating freely of eggs, milk, olive oil, 
fruit, meat, and other nutritious but easily digested 
foods, are the effective cure. Alcoholic drinks do not 
aid but retard one's recovery. The same is, as a rule, 
true of patent medicines. 






202 



THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 



A change of climate to mountain or other regions 
where the air is dry is usually very helpful. One of the 
greatest benefits from going to such a place is that one 

becomes impressed 
with the value of 
out-of-door air and 
nourishing food. 
He sees others, too 
sick to walk, may- 
be, sitting out of 
doors all day, and 
hears that they 
sleep with wide- 
open windows . He 
learns the value of 
an abundance of 
eggs, milk, and 
similar foods in his 
diet, and the great 
benefit of complete 
rest, if he chances 
to have fever. 
The main things, 
however, are the out-of-door air, nourishing food, and 
rest. It is far better to have these with good care 
and contentment at home than to be poorly cared for 
and unhappy in the best of climates elsewhere. 




Raybrook Sanitarium, Adirondacks. 
porch in cold weather. 



On the 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 203 

Several states now have sanatoria (san'a-to f ri-a) 
for consumptives in regions of high altitude. Many 
cities have day camps where poor consumptives can get 
pure air and nourishing food, living out of doors in 
tents, often free of charge. Public and private societies 
are making great efforts to have everybody understand 
how to prevent and to cure consumption. This has 
already resulted in largely decreasing the disease, and 
will, it is hoped, in time stop its ravages. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Many diseases are caused by minute plants or ani- 
mals multiplying rapidly in the body. These germs are not 
likely to multiply fast enough to do harm in healthy, vigorous 
tissue. 

2. The best way to keep free from germ diseases is to 
keep the body strong and healthy through the use of pure 
air, plain food, pure water, exercise, and rest. 

3. House flies are positive enemies to life and health. 
They carry disease germs from filth and deposit them where 
they may get into the human body. Flies breed in manure 
and other filth. Pains should be taken to prevent their 
breeding. Windows and doors should be screened to keep 
flies out of homes, and all that get in should be killed. 

4. In consumption and other diseases of the air passages, 
the germs are in the sputum. This should be burned, and 
all possible effort should be made to keep the germs from a 
sick person from getting to any one else. 

5. Sunlight helps to destroy disease germs. Therefore 
we should let the sunlight freely into our windows, and always 
prefer a sunny room to one that gets little or no sunlight. 



204 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

6. It is both possible and desirable to avoid all of the 
so-called children's diseases. Any of them may leave per- 
manent injury. Scarlet fever and measles are especially 
likely to do so. 

7. Consumption is the greatest destroyer of human life. 
It is not caused by a cold, but through a loss of vitality al- 
lowing bacteria to multiply. It cannot be cured by medicine. 
Cool, out-of-door air, plain, nutritious food, and rest are the 
best cures for this disease. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are disease germs or microbes? 

2. What is said of the size of disease germs? 

3. How do they multiply? 

4. Tell the best way to prevent these germs from multiply- 
ing in our bodies. 

5. In what condition is the body, as a rule, when they 
get started? 

6. Tell two ways these germs may be killed when out- 
side of the body. 

7. In what diseases are the germs in the sputum? 

8. Tell what pains should be taken to avoid their get- 
ting from a sick person to some one else. 

9. In what are the germs of typhoid fever and some other 
diseases? 

10. How are such diseases often spread? 

11. What is said about the way scarlet fever and other 
disease germs spread? 

12. Tell how disease germs may spread through milk. 

13. Tell several easy ways in which you may avoid 
disease germs. 

14. How may a fly spread disease germs? Tell all you 
can about how to prevent flies from breeding. 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 205 

15. Tell how a mosquito spreads malaria and other 
diseases. 

16. Name five diseases that are more common to children 
than to adults. 

17. What is said of scarlet fever? of measles? 

18. Why should both scarlet fever and measles be care- 
fully avoided? 

19. Tell what is said of diphtheria; of chicken pox; of 
whooping cough; of mumps. 

20. What is sjtid of the correctness of the idea that every 
one must have these children's diseases sometime, and that 
childhood is the best period? 

21. How much did smallpox decrease after the begin- 
ning of the practice of vaccination in 1798? 

22. Why should parents not oppose the vaccination of 
healthy children? 

23. How many people out of every hundred die of con- 
sumption? 

24. What is said of the cause of consumption? 

25. What is the very best way to prevent consumption? 

26. Tell three classes of persons who are the most likely 
to have consumption; state three things they should do 
to keep themselves from becoming victims of the " Great 
White Plague." 

27. WTiat is said of air in the cure of consumption? of 
food? of alcoholic drinks? of patent medicines? 

28. What change of climate is usually good for a con- 
sumptive? State one of the greatest benefits from going to 
such a climate. 

29. What movements have been started that will greatly 
decrease the ravages of consumption? 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE CARE OF THE BODY 

EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 

If a boy owns a pony, he likes to have it look as fine 
and be as graceful and swift as possible. To this end 
the pony is carefully fed, watered, cleaned, trained, and 
exercised. No trouble is too great, if the little animal 
will only be made handsomer and more useful. There 
are few children to whom a fine, active pony would not 
be a most welcome present. There are very few, too, 
who would not take the best care of one, if they were 
so fortunate as to receive such a gift. 

Not many children can have ponies. But all have 
bodies of their own that are much more useful, and of 
far greater value. Shall they become healthy, strong, 
and graceful, or sickly, weak, and awkward? This 
will depend largely upon what each makes up his mind 
to have, and how well he cares for and trains himself 
to that end. 

We have learned how we can best use food, air, and 
water in building our bodies. We have found out how 
to care for our eyes and ears, and how to guard our 
bodies from accidents and disease. We have also 

206 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 207 

learned why the brain and nervous system must have 
plenty of rest, and why the blood must keep carrying 
oxygen and nutriment to all parts of the body. By 
making use of this knowledge in daily habits, almost 
everybody can be healthy. 

But we should not be satisfied to have our pony 
merely healthy. We should want him strong, active, 
and graceful; nor would simply proper feeding, water- 
ing, and cleaning make him so. He would gain and 
keep strength, activity (ak-tiv'i-ty), and grace only 
by thorough training and regular exercise. Likewise, 
boys and girls and men and women become and remain 
strong, active, vigorous, and graceful through careful 
training and regular exercise. 

Benefits of Exercise. — Our muscles grow hard and 
strong through use; if not actively used, they become 
soft and flabby. If we do not use our bodies in active 
work or exercise, the circulation of blood in some of 
the organs may become sluggish, and so they will not 
do their work well, and may gradually (grad'u-al-ly) 
become diseased. If certain muscles are used but little, 
we do not get good control of them, and hence our 
movements will not be graceful when they are used. 

Deep-breathing Exercises. — The more oxygen any 
part of the body receives, the better able it is to do its 
work. Therefore deep-breathing exercises are among 
the very best for all to practice, since they bring an 



208 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

increased supply of oxygen to the body, and also aid 
one in forming the habit of taking more air into the 
lungs in the ordinary (or'di-na-ry) breathing. The 
two following are especially good, because they are easy 
to learn and can be conveniently (kon-ven'yent-ly) 
used. 

(1) Breathe in all the air you possibly can through 
the nose in one breath, and then let it out slowly 
through a very small opening in the mouth. This may 
be practiced while standing, walking, sitting, or even 
while lying in bed. The chief point is to be in pure, 
cool air. 

(2) Stand with your hands above your head, and 
then try to touch the floor, bending from the waist 
but not bending the knees. As you bend, breathe out 
all the air possible, and breathe in all you can while 
returning to an erect position. 

These and many other exercises will both increase the 
capacity (ka-pas'i-ty) of the lungs and strengthen the 
breathing muscles. Since ability to run or skate fast, 
as well as strength and skill in most active games, 
depend largely upon breathing capacity, children will 
see that it is well worth while to practice these exercises. 
It is also true that people subject to colds or almost 
any illness can greatly strengthen themselves, and often 
gain good health by faithfully practicing deep breath- 
ing. Ten minutes' practice twice a day, at night before 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 209 

retiring and upon rising in the morning, will often result 
in great benefit. 

Games and Sports. — Baseball, basket ball, tennis, 
bicycle riding, swimming, and skating are all fine 
exercise for the lungs as well as for the rest of the body. 
Of course out-of-door skating is better than indoor, 
because of the purer air. Any of the numerous games 
that require running are very good for developing 
strength and quickness. Rowing is excellent, espe- 
cially for the chest, back, lungs, arms, and legs, and 
because it develops both sides of the body equally well. 
Dancing, marching, and folk games help to make one 
graceful; but dancing in a crowded, ill-ventilated room 
is likely to be of greater injury than benefit. 

Exercises to help Digestion. — The second of the 
breathing exercises given above is excellent in helping 
digestion, because it strengthens the muscles of the 
abdomen, and also improves the circulation in the in- 
testines, liver, and other organs. For similar reasons 
all bending, turning, and stretching exercises are likely 
to assist digestion. Massaging (ma-sazh'mg) (rub- 
bing or kneading) any part of the body that is not 
working well, or that is in pain, is often helpful, because 
it improves the circulation of blood in that part. Of 
course running, walking, and all games are likely to 
improve digestion, because of their good effect upon the 
circulation. 



210 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

Walking. — Walking takes one out of doors, and is 
beneficial in other ways. Of course the faster a person 
walks, the greater the effect upon his circulation. In 
walking we should be careful not to let our weight fall 
upon the heels. This habit is stiff and awkward, and 
besides it jars the spine and brain. Instead w T e should 
let the ball (center) of the foot strike the ground first. 
This makes walking both easier and more graceful. 

Children should not ride to school or anywhere else 
in a street car or other closed vehicle, when they have 
time and strength to walk. Instead of tiring them, 
such exercise in the out-of-door air will make them 
better able to do good school work. 

Bookworms. — Some children become so fond of 
reading and study that they forget to play. Often, 
too, they really think they are doing something wise 
and worthy of praise because the older members of 
the family speak of it as a sure sign of being a good 
scholar, and hence a successful man or woman. This is, 
to say the least, a very mistaken idea. 

It is wise to study faithfully in school and during 
the required hours at home; but in free time, active 
play and vigorous exercise should be the rule for those 
who really want to succeed in life. A brain crammed 
with information (in-for-ma'shun) is of little value 
without a healthy body to make use of it. 

It often happens that among the pupils who stand 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 211 

highest in a class, there will be several who are nervous 
and pale and sickly in appearance. While this may be 
caused by improper food and lack of pure air, it often 
results from want of play and exercise. They are de- 
veloping the mind at the expense of the body. 

All children who have no liking for out-of-door games 
should be taught to play and, if necessary, be made 
to do so. Indeed, if they but realized what a good 
effect such fun and exercise would have upon their 
future health and usefulness, they would very likely be 
the most earnest about out-of-door play. 

Delicate Children. — Some children are too weak to 
play well. It is natural not to enjoy doing what we 
cannot do at least fairly well. Therefore such children 
do not like games, and even find them unsafe. Never- 
theless, they are the very ones who should persevere 
the most in training themselves to become strong and 
active. 

For delicate children, the first important thing is to 
make sure that they are supplying their bodies with 
the right kind of food and the purest possible air. Then 
deep-breathing exercises should be regularly practiced 
several times daily. Gymnastic exercises learned in 
school, fast walking, and easy running may be practiced, 
little by little, to gain more strength and facility. 
Then by persevering in out-of-door games as far as 
strength will permit, they will rapidly improve both in 



212 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

health , and in vigor and skill. The chief thing is to 
determine (de-ter'min) not to give up until one is 
strong and vigorous, and then to keep trying until the 
goal is won. 

A plant in clay soil in a shady part of the garden 
grows but little. Transplant it to good soil in a 
place where sunshine and water are plentiful, and the 
change for better in its growth will be almost marvelous. 

Many delicate persons are like such plants; and the 
right kind of food, air, water, exercise, and rest will in 
time bring about a similar change in health. This 
may seem quite impossible; but it has happened so 
often that the truth of the statement may be easily 
proven. We must not be satisfied to be delicate plants. 
To say nothing of the increased power for usefulness, 
there is far more fun in being strong and hardy. 

Girls and Exercise. — Some girls have an idea that 
it is fine for them to be delicate and flower-like. They 
seem to think that somehow it makes them more inter- 
esting and attractive. Pale complexion, soft muscles, 
and small waists are signs of ill health and not of 
beauty. The color, muscle, and grace that active 
out-of-door games and exercises will give girls are their 
greatest possible beauty. Such exercises will also 
better fit them for the duties of life. 

Adults and Exercise. — After leaving school and 
beginning work, many give up play and exercise. 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 213 

After a time, a little run to catch a street car will get 
them out of breath. Any extra physical effort makes 
them sore and lame, since their muscles have become 
soft and flabby from lack of use. 

Fifteen minutes, twice a day, at night and in the 
morning, with Indian clubs, dumb-bells, chest weights, 
or merely practicing breathing, bending, arm and leg 
exercises, will keep the muscles of such persons in fair 
condition. A few miles' brisk walk to and from the 
place of business will likewise be of great benefit. 

Often nothing of this kind is done simply through 
lack of thought. Then one gets into the habit of not 
exerting himself, and exercise becomes distasteful. 
One should remember that it pays to keep the muscles 
hard through regular exercise. In the first place, there 
is much satisfaction in being strong and in being able 
to do and to endure. Then by keeping vigorous mus- 
cles and active circulation, we are best able to prevent 
nervousness, disease, and much else that is both 
uncomfortable and expensive. 

Home Gymnasiums. — When the weather permits, 
out-of-door games and exercise are always better than 
exercise indoors. For this reason it is of doubtful 
value for children to join a public gymnasium, if they 
go there at times favorable for out-of-door play. How- 
ever, a home gymnasium with a horizontal bar, chest 
weights, swinging rings, trapeze, dumb-bells, and 



214 



THE BUILDING AND CAEE OF THE BODY 



Indian clubs makes exercise in unpleasant weather 
more attractive. 

The Right Ideal for the Body. — A fond parent some- 
times says, " I cannot do too much for my child. " 
By that he means that he will spare no thought, or 
pains, or labor on the child's training and education. 




A public school athletic meet. 

To him his child is the best gift of God. Only in its 
highest development will the parent's greatest possible 
joy and satisfaction be realized. Therefore his ideal 
for the child is to make all of it that he possibly can. 
This is the ideal which every child should have for 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 215 

his own body. "My greatest possible usefulness and 
happiness in life depend largely upon what I make of 
my body. It is the most wonderful of created things. 
It is God's best gift to me. How ungrateful I should 
be not to keep so marvelous a gift pure, clean, and un- 
defiled; how thoughtless and negligent, not to make 
of this body all that God in His goodness and wisdom 
has made possible for it to become." 

With such an ideal earnestly and perseveringly fol- 
lowed, there are, indeed, few boys and girls who would 
not know the great joy and usefulness that is possible 
with a well-developed mind in a healthy, capable body. 

The Right Ideal for Home and Country. — It would, 
to say the least, be selfish, if we were content simply 
to gain health and strength for ourselves. Knowing 
their great value, we should want all our friends to 
enjoy them, too. In fact, whatever can be done in our 
city or village that will tend to give better health to 
everybody should receive our earnest support. 

A pure water supply, the best disposal (dis-pos'al) 
of sewage and garbage, clean streets, tidy homes, beauti- 
ful shade trees, numerous parks, — all make for better 
health in a city. We know that the body should be 
developed and trained along with the mind. There- 
fore roomy, well-ventilated school buildings with ample 
playgrounds, good gymnasium, convenient baths, and 
large swimming pool are needed. 



216 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

In many cities and villages, health officers are doing 
excellent work in preventing the spread of disease 
and in improving the conditions of living in many ways. 
By analyzing (an-a-liz'ing) the milk that is sold and 
inspecting the dairies that furnish it, they are saving 
the precious lives of many babies, and adding to the 
strength of many others. Should such officers, in the 
place where we live, be careless or negligent about 
these important matters, we should do our best to in- 
duce people to make these careless officers attend 
properly to their duties. 

Public officers are trying to compel those who manu- 
facture food to furnish that which is pure. Through 
smoke consumers (kon-sum'erz) and in other ways, 
efforts are being made for purer air in cities. " Fresh 
Air Missions " and " Day Nurseries " (nurs'er-iz), as 
well as purer and cleaner milk, are counting for the 
better health of babies and little children. 

Public playgrounds, where children can enjoy games 
and learn to develop their bodies under wise direction, 
are being started in many cities. Public baths for the 
use of those who have not such convenience (kon-ven'- 
yens) at home are being built. Public School Athletic 
Leagues, whose purpose is to interest all children in 
developing their bodies, rather than to train a few 
skilled athletes, are being started. Associations (as- 
so-si-a'shiinz) for the prevention and cure of tuber- 



EXERCISE AND BODILY VIGOR 217 

culosis are being organized (or'gan-izd) by earnest 
physicians and charitable citizens. 

All these movements make for better health and 
greater happiness. We should all work earnestly to 
advance these good causes in the city or village in which 
we live. As true lovers of health and usefulness 
may our ideal be Good Health for Home and Country. 
May we also do all in our power to spread knowledge of 
the simple habits that will tend to make this precious 
possession a more universal one. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Through exercise we keep our muscles hard and strong, 
and the organs of our body active and healthy. 

2. Deep-breathing exercises are among the most im- 
portant for all. Through these, we may gain strength for 
work and play, and help rid ourselves of colds and other 
disagreeable illness. 

3. It is foolish to develop the mind at the expense of 
the body. It is far more important for delicate children to 
learn to like play and games and to develop bodily health 
and strength than it is to stand high in their studies. 

4. It should be the ideal of both boys and girls to develop 
strong, healthy bodies through exercise. They should also 
aim to become fond of certain games and exercises, and to 
make use of them all their lives. 

QUESTIONS 

1. State three benefits of exercise. 

2. Why are deep-breathing exercises of especial value? 

3. Describe the first deep-breathing exercise that is 
given; the second deep-breathing exercise. 



218 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

4. Besides increased power in play and work, what other 
benefits may come from practicing deep-breathing exercises? 

5. Mention several exercises that are excellent for the 
lungs as well as for the rest of the body. 

6. Why is skating out of doors better than indoor 
skating? Tell why rowing is excellent exercise. 

7. What is said of dancing, marching, and folk games? 

8. Mention some exercises that are helpful to digestion, 
and state why. 

9. Tell what is said of rubbing and massage. 

10. Why should one be careful to step on the ball of the 
foot when walking? Tell all that is said of walking. 

11. How do some children become "bookworms" ? 
State why this is unwise. 

12. Mention the first things of importance for delicate 
children to look out for. 

13. What exercises are especially important for delicate 
children to practice? 

14. How may delicate children gradually become strong 
and skillful in games? 

15. How are delicate children like plants in poor soil in 
a shady part of the garden? 

16. What is said concerning girls and exercise? 

17. State the effects upon adults of giving up play and 
exercise. 

18. How may adults keep their muscles hard and their 
bodies in good physical condition? 

19. Tell what is said about home gymnasiums. 

20. What is the right ideal for every child to have for his 
body? for home and country? 

21. Tell some good things health officers are accomplish- 
ing. Mention several public movements to improve health. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



THE CARE OF LITTLE CHILDREN 



Many children have dear little brothers and sisters 
at home of whom they often take care. It sometimes 
happens that these helpless little ones are injured 
while in charge of an older child. Of course this is 
not caused by want of love. 
As a rule, it is due to not 
knowing better or to not be- 
ing careful. How precious 
these dear little babies are, 
all know. All, too, will be 
eager to learn how best to 
guard and keep them from 
harm. 

Food for Children. — Until 
a child is one year old, he 
should receive no solid food 
of any kind, as the digestive organs are not yet ready 
to take care of any food not liquid. Now whatever 
gets into little babies' hands soon finds its way to their 
mouths. For this reason, babies should not be allowed 
to handle fruit, bread, cake, or any other solid food. 

219 




Little Marjorie. 



220 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

For children from one to two years old, the best 
foods are fresh milk, well-cooked cereal, dry toast, or 
unsweetened zwieback (tzwe'bak), broth, and coddled 
eggs. They may also be given orange juice, and phy- 
sicians sometimes advise a little prune pulp, baked 
apple, or apple sauce. Great pains should be taken to 
buy pure milk and to keep it fresh and sweet. 

During the third year, finely cut chicken, lamb, or 
beef may be eaten. So also may thoroughly boiled 
rice, baked potato, spinach, asparagus tips, celery, 
carrots, squash, and string beans ; but all such vege- 
tables should be thoroughly cooked. For dessert 
junket, custard, and plain rice or tapioca pudding 
are excellent. Ice cream, too, is good, if it is eaten 
slowly. Milk is the best drink, and weak cocoa is the 
next best. Neither coffee nor tea should be given to 
children. 

Peas, beans, nuts, and dried fruits should not be 
eaten until children can be impressed with the need of 
chewing them thoroughly. For the same reason pop- 
corn should be avoided. The fascinating popcorn and 
peanut wagon has had a large share in weakening the 
good digestion of many city children. Both popcorn 
and peanuts are hearty foods, and should not be taken 
soon after a full meal. 

iVfter the age of three, children may be given a 
piece or two of candy for dessert at the midday meaL 



THE CARE OF LITTLE CHILDREN 221 

Sirup, jams, pies, rich cakes, and puddings, and all 
fried foods should be avoided until children are older. 
In fact, they should never be eaten except in small 
amounts by any one. 

Water for Little Children. — Babies should be trained 
to take water between nursings. In very hot weather, 
they should be given less food and more water than 
at other times of the year. If there is any doubt as 
to the purity of the drinking water, it should be boiled 
and cooled before being given to any members of the 
family, especially to little children. 

Giving Medicine. — Some people give medicine to 
children very frequently. Often this is done for little 
or no reason except that the child is fretful. It is 
quite natural for most babies to cry more or less. In 
fact, this is one of the ways they get exercise. Brac- 
ing air, proper food, and pure water are the best rem- 
edies for all; and children who have these, will be 
much better off, as a rule, without drugs. It is a 
good plan not to give medicine at all, unless advised 
to do so by a physician. 

Baby's Outings. — One of the chief duties of the 
older children with reference to baby is to take him 
for an outing. Now most babies have the habit of 
throwing their covering off, even in cold weather. 
On this account, much patience is required to keep 
the little things properly protected from the colds 



222 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

and other illness that often follow exposure to the 
weather. 

Especial care should also be taken to protect the 
eyes of infants from the sun or other bright light. 
Often this can be done by adjusting the carriage top, 
or by changing the position of the carriage. The 
sight of many children has been injured for life by 
lack of protection of this kind in babyhood. 

In summer and early autumn, any time from 7 a.m. 
until sunset is good for baby to be out of doors. In 
winter or spring, from 10 or 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. is the 
best time; but severe winds should be avoided any 
time of day. The practice of having baby sleep in 
his carriage on a well-protected part of the veranda 
is excellent. By so doing, he can have the purest and 
most bracing air several hours of the day. This prac- 
tice has been rapidly growing in favor because, through 
it, many sickly babies have become well and strong. 
However, some one should always be near enough to 
see that the covering is kept in place, and that the 
little one is in every way comfortable. 

Lifting Children. — In lifting a young baby the 
right hand should grasp its clothing just below the feet, 
and the left hand should be slipped beneath the 
baby's body to its head. The back should always be 
supported while young babies are being carried or 
held. 



THE CARE OF LITTLE CHILDREN 223 

In lifting a child who is old enough to run about, 
the hands should be placed under its arms. It should 
never be lifted by the hands or wrists, as injury may 
easily be done. 

Falls. — There is a space on the upper part of 
babies' skulls that does not harden until they are 
about a year and a half old. This is commonly called 
the " soft spot." A hard blow near this spot is likely 
to be fatal. Little ones have been instantly killed by 
falling and striking the head. In many schools there 
are children who have very little or no power to learn. 
Often they go on from grade to grade on account of 
their size, and because they learn as much in one class 
as in another. If there is a school for defectives, 
they are sent there. Children are sometimes among 
these defectives simply because they were so unfor- 
tunate as to get a hard fall in babyhood. 

Keeping Baby from injuring Himself. — It is not 
uncommon for little children to choke to death from 
something lodging in the throat. On this account 
they should not be allowed to handle buttons, marbles, 
or anything that can be readily swallowed. Play- 
things from which small pieces can be broken or bitten 
should also be avoided. 

Babies should not be allowed to handle anything 
that is sharp or pointed. Painful wounds have been 
caused, and the use of an eye or an ear lost by such 



224 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

carelessness, for babies, of course, know no better than 
to harm themselves. 

The so-called " pacifiers " which so many children 
are given are likely to cause the mouth to become 
misshapen, and they also afford a lodging place for 
germs. For these reasons they should not be used. 
An ivory ring or a silver spoon to bite, now and then, 
will give comfort and do no harm. 

Walking. — Infants should not be encouraged to 
stand or to walk until they make attempts of their 
own accord, or show other evidence of having enough 
strength. As a rule, they will try to stand and to 
walk about the age of one year, and sometimes even 
three or more months before. At no time should they 
be urged to do more than they seem to have strength 
for. Standing or walking before the legs and feet are 
strong may cause bow legs and make the body less 
beautiful. These practices may also break down the 
natural arch of the foot, thus causing weakness for a 
lifetime. 

Playing with Babies. — Children under six months 
old should not be played with, for they ought at all 
times to be kept as quiet and undisturbed as possible. 
Trying to make young babies smile, attracting their 
attention in any way, tossing them up in the air, and 
other practices that are intended to please or to show 
baby off, may really injure him. In fact, the same 



THE CARE OF LITTLE CHILDREN 225 

thing is more or less true of all children until they are 
strong enough to run about. Gentleness and lack of 
excitement are indeed the very best conditions for all 
small children. Playing hard just before going to 
bed is likely to make any child nervous and wakeful. 

Little Children and Diseases. — Little children are 
very likely to take colds, measles, scarlet fever, and 
other diseases. For this reason, they should not be 
taken in street cars or other closed public conveyances 
in winter. Crowded stores and other places where 
there is likely to be impure air should also be avoided. 

Children should not be kissed on the mouth, as they 
may catch disease in that way. Little babies often 
drop toys, spoons, and other playthings. These should 
always be carefully wiped off before they are given 
back, since harmful disease germs may be in the dust 
they take up from the floor. 

If little children begin the habit of mouth breath- 
ing, their mouths should be closed while they sleep. 
If carefully watched, the habit may be stopped in 
this way. Too much pains cannot be taken to prevent 
them from starting this habit, as their health is sure 
to be seriously injured by it. 

By and by the babies of to-day's home circle will 
be starting school. What pride the family will take 
in having them active and strong both at play and at 
work. How sorry any member would be to have one 



226 THE BUILDING AND CARE OF THE BODY 

inferior in mind or in body because of his carelessness 
or poor judgment. Looking out for the health and 
happiness of others is among the greatest privileges of 
life. It is, indeed, good fortune to begin such service 
in childhood by faithful care of the sweet, helpless 
little ones at home. 

POINTS FOR SPECIAL STUDY 

1. Babies should not be allowed to handle food that 
requires chewing. Candy, rich desserts, and fried foods 
should not be given to small children, nor should such foods 
be eaten when one is older, except in small quantities. 

2. Infants should at all times be kept warm. Bright 
light may injure their eyes, and so they should be protected 
from it. The best time to take little children out of doors 
in winter and spring is from 10 or 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. 

3. When being lifted or carried, an infant's back should 
always be supported. Children should never be lifted by the 
hands or wrists. 

4. Babies should not be allowed to handle anything 
which may choke them, or with which they may injure 
themselves. 

5. Infants may be killed or injured in mind or body for 
life, if allowed to fall. 

6. Standing or walking before the legs and feet are 
strong enough may cause crooked legs or weaken the body 
by breaking down the natural arch of the foot. 

7. Babies under six months old should not be played 
with at all, and the less all children are played with until 
they are old enough to run about, the better. 

8. Little children take contagious diseases very readily. 
For this reason they should in winter be kept from street 



THE CARE OF LITTLE CHILDREN 227 

cars, crowded stores, and other places where the air is likely 
to be impure. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Until what age should a child be fed only liquid food? 

2. Tell the best food for children from one to two years 
old. 

3. What meats may be given the third year? What 
vegetables? What desserts? 

4. Tell all you can about the best food for children from 
one to two years old. 

5. Tell what is said about food for children after the age 
of three. 

6. What care should be taken concerning the drinking 
water given to children? 

7. Mention two things to be especially careful about 
when one has a baby out of doors. 

8. What is the best time of day to take a baby out of 
doors in winter? 

9. What care should be taken in lifting very young 
babies? in lifting any little child? 

10. Why should buttons, etc., not be kept within the 
reach of infants? 

11. How may babies injure themselves with sharp or 
pointed instruments? How are " pacifiers " injurious? 

12. Tell why a fall may be especially harmful to a little 
baby. 

13. Tell two bad results of standing or walking before 
the legs are strong enough. 

14. Until what age should children not be played with at 
all? Why is hard play just before bedtime unwise? 

15. Tell how to help keep children from forming the 
mouth-breathing habit ; from taking contagious diseases. 



GLOSSARY 

Abdomen (ab do'men), that part of the body between the chest and 

legs. 
Adenoids (ad'e noidz), spongy growths in the upper part of the throat, 

back of the nose. 
Albumen (albu'men), one kind of proteid; the chief component of 

white of egg. 
Alcohol (al'ko hoi) , the intoxicating element of wine, beer, whisky, etc. 
Alcoholic (aTko hol'ik), containing alcohol. 
Alimentary canal (al I men'ta ry), the food channel of the body. 
Aorta (a or'ta), the great artery through which blood passes to every 

part of the body except the lungs. 
Artery (ar'tery), one of the tubes through which blood passes from 

the heart. 

Astigmatism (a stig'ma tiz'm), a defect of the eye caused by a condi- 
tion of unequal curvature of the lens or cornea. 
Auditory canal (a/dito ry), the tube from the opening of the ear to 

the drumhead of the middle ear. 
Auricle (a/ri k'l), the external ear. 

Aurist (a'rist), one skilled in treating disorders of the ear. 
Bacteria (bak te'ri a), tiny plants often called germs or microbes. 
Bowels (bou'elz), the large and small intestines together. 
Bronchi (bron'ki), the two branches of the windpipe entering the lungs. 
Bronchial tubes (bron'ki al tubz), the divisions of the bronchi. 
Bronchioles (bron'ki olz), small divisions or branches of the bronchial 

tubes. 
Capillary (kap'Il lary), one of the small blood vessels connecting 

arteries and veins. 
Carbon dioxide (kar bon di 6ks / Id),the poisonous gas breathed out from 

the lungs. 

Carbonic acid gas (karbon'ik), another name for carbon dioxide. 
Cerebellum (ser e beThlm), the part of the brain that controls combined 

muscular action ; the hinder and lower part. 

229 



230 GLOSSARY 

Cerebrum (ser'e brum), the fore part and larger division of the brain. 

Chyle (kil), the digested food in the intestine. 

Chyme (kim), the partly digested food leaving the stomach. 

Cilia (sil'i a), tiny hairs in the air passages. 

Circulation (ser kula'shun), the movement of the blood through the 
blood vessels of the body. 

Combustion (kom bus'chun), the union of carbon and oxygen result- 
ing in heat. 

Component (kompo'nent), one of the parts that make up a thing. 

Constipation (kon sti pa/shun), a state of the bowels in which the ex- 
pulsion of waste is not regular or sufficiently frequent. 

Consumption (kon sump'shun), a wasting away of the body, or tuber- 
culosis of the lungs. 

Corpuscles (kor'piis s'lz), the tiny cells of the blood commonly de- 
scribed by their color, red or white. 

Dandruff (dan'druf), the small scales which come off from the scalp. 

Dentine (den'tln), the ivory-like substance lying under the enamel of 
the tooth. 

Dermis (der'mis), the true skin. 

Diaphragm (di'afram), the muscle which separates the cavity of the 
chest from that of the abdomen. 

Drumhead (drum hed), the membrane separating the outer from the 
middle ear. 

Ear drum (er drum), the middle ear. 

Enamel (en am'el), the hard outer covering of a tooth. 

Enema (en'e ma), an injection of fluid into the lower part of the 
bowels. 

Epidermis (epi der'mis), the outer layer of the skin. 

Epiglottis (ep I glot'tis), the valve which keeps food and drink from 
passing into the windpipe. 

Esophagus (esof'agus), the tube extending from the throat to the 
stomach. 

Eustachian (u sta'ki an), the tube leading from the middle ear to the 
throat. 

Gall bladder (gal), the sac of the liver that secretes the gall or bile. 

Gastric glands (gas'trik), the glands of the stomach that secrete gas- 
tric juice. 

Gastric juice, the digestive fluid secreted by the glands of the stomach. 



GLOSSARY 231 

Insensible perspiration (in sen's! M per spi ra/shun), constant per- 
spiration not noticed. 

Intercostal muscles (in ter kos'tal), the muscles between the ribs, used 
in breathing. 

Intestinal fluid (in tes'ti nal), the digestive fluid of the intestines. 

Intestinal glands, the glands of the intestines that secrete intestinal 
fluid. 

Involuntary (in vol'unta ry), not under the control of the will. 

Kidneys (kid'niz), the two organs of the body that secrete urine. 

Large intestine, the lower part of the intestines. It is larger around 
than the small intestine but not nearly so long. 

Larynx (lar'inks), the windpipe. 

Liver (liv'er), the largest gland of the body. It secretes bile or gall, 
which aids in digestion. It is in the right side of the abdomen. 

Massage (masazh'), rubbing or kneading the body. 

Mastication (mas'tika'shun), the act of chewing food. 

Medulla (me duTla), the back part of the brain connected with the 
spinal cord. 

Microbe (mi'krob), disease germ. 

Middle ear, the middle part of the ear, sometimes called the ear drum. 

Mucus (mu'kus), a secretion of glands in the lining of the air pas- 
sages. 

Nitrogen (ni'tro jen), the gas which forms the greater part of air. 

Nostril (nos'tril), one of the divisions of the nose. 

Oculist (ok'u list), one skilled in treating diseases of the eyes. 

Oil glands, glands of the skin which secrete oil. 

Optic nerve (op'tik), the nerve which passes from the retina of the 
eye to the brain. 

Orthodontia (or tho don'sha), the science of straightening teeth. 

Oxygen (oks'i jen), the gas of air that is necessary to life. 

Pacifier (pas'i fier), a rubber nipple given babies to quiet them. 

Pancreas (pan'kre as), the gland secreting pancreatic juice. 

Pancreatic juice, the digestive fluid secreted by the pancreas. 

Pasteurized milk (pas'ter iz'd), milk that has been heated to a tem- 
perature of about one hundred fifty-five degrees. 

Pericardium (per ikar'dium), the membrane sac which incloses the 
heart. 

Perspiration (per spira'shun), sweat. 



232 GLOSSARY 

Perspiratory glands (per splr'a to ry), the glands of the skin that 

secrete perspiration. 
Pharynx (faYinks), the part of the food canal between the mouth and 

the esophagus. 
Plasma (plaz'ma), the colorless fluid of the blood. 
Proteid (pro'te id), the component of food from which bodily tissues 

are built. 
Pulmonary artery (pur nio nary), the artery leading from the heart 

to the lungs. 
Pulmonary vein, the vein which leads from the lungs to the heart. 
Pulp, the soft tissue in the central cavity, of the teeth. 
Pulse, the beating or throbbing of the heart or blood vessels. 
Pupil, the opening in the iris or colored part of the eye. 
Pylorus (pi lo'rus), the opening in the stomach into the small intestine. 
Respiration (res pi ra'shun), the act of breathing. 
Retina (ret'i na), the innermost coat of the eye, corresponding to the 

film of a camera. 
Rhythmic (rith'mik), having regular succession of motion. 
Saliva (sa li'va), secretion of the salivary glands. 
Salivary glands (sal'i va ry), the glands in the mouth secreting saliva. 
Secretion (se kre'shun), fluid secreted by a gland from the blood. 
Small intestine, the part of the bowels between the stomach and the 

large intestine. 
Spinal cord (spi'nal), the cord extending from the brain to the base 

of the spine. 
Starch (starch), a component of food which furnishes fuel for the 

body. 
Sterilized milk (ster'il Iz'd), milk that has been boiled to kill bacteria. 
Sternum (ster'num), the breast bone. 
Stomach (stum'ak), the part of the food canal between the esophagus 

and the small intestine. 
Sugar, a component of food which furnishes fuel to the body. 
Thorax (tho'raks), the chest. 
Trachea (tra'ke a), windpipe. 
Urethra (ure'thra), the canal by which urine passes from the bladder 

and is discharged. 
Urine (u'rin), the fluid excreted by the kidneys. 
Veins (vanz), the vessels through which blood passes to the heart. 
Villi (viril), hair like tubes in the lining of the small intestine. 



INDEX 



Abdomen, 4. 

Absorption, 25. 

Accidents, 185-191. 

Acid foods, 20. 

Acrolein, 135. 

Adam's apple, 173. 

Adenoids, 101-103. 

Air, value of, 71; pure, 72; impure, 
74, 83 ; too dry, 82. 

Alcohol, 60-64; not a food, 60; 
effect on appetite, 62; on brain 
and nervous system, 132; on con- 
sumptives, 201 ; on digestion, 32 ; 
on health, 60; on the heart and 
circulation, 62, 122 ; on usefulness, 
62; on warmth, 60. 

Alimentary canal, 15. 

Arteries, 117. 

Asparagus, 54. 

Astigmatism, 155. 

Auditory canal, 161, 163. 



Babies, care of, 219-227. 

Bacteria, 36, 192-197. 

Baldness, 181. 

Bathing, 107. 

Beans, 52. 

Between meals, 31. 

Bile, 16. 

Bladder, 110. 

Blood, 7, 97, 116-123. 

Bowels, 15. 

Brain, 125-127, 131, 132. 

Bread, 49. 

Breakfast, 67. 

Breathing, 87-97; mouth, 100-103. 

Bronchi, 90. 

Bronchial tubes, 90. 

Bronchioles, 90. 

Bruises, 185. 



Burbank, Luther, 133-134. 
Burns, 186. 
Butter, 40. 
Buttermilk, 40. 



Cabbage, 54. 

Candy, 66-67. 

Capillaries, 117. 

Carbon dioxide, 73. 

Care of little children, 219-227. 

Carrots, 54. 

Celery, 54. 

Cerebellum, 126, 127. 

Cerebrum, 126, 127. 

Cheese, 40. 

Chest, 4. 

Chewing food, 19-22. 

Chicken pox, 198. 

Children's diseases, 197-199. 

Chocolate, 58. 

Cigarettes, 132-136. 

Cilia, 88. 

Circulation of the blood, 116-124. 

Clothing, 178-179. 

Cocoa, 58. 

Coffee, 58, 59. 

Cold drinks and foods, 20. 

Condensed milk, 39. 

Constipation, 68. 

Consumption, 200-203. 

Contagious diseases, 192-203. 

Cooking and serving food, 29. 

Corn, 48. 

Corpuscles, red, 116; white, 117. 

Cream, 35. 

Cross-eye, 156. 



D 



Dandelions, 53. 

Deafness, 167-168. 

Deep breathing, 93, 104, 207, 208. 



. 



233 



234 



INDEX 



Dental floss, 141. 

Digestion, in the mouth, 19; in the 
stomach, 24; in the intestines, 24; 
of flour foods, 49; waste products 
of, 25; effects of excitement on, 
28; of hard work or play just be- 
fore mealtime on, 27; of alcohol 
on, 32; of exercise on, 209; of 
tobacco on, 32. 

Digestive organs, 15; resting of, 30. 

Disease germs, 192-197. 

Drowning, 187. 

E 
Earache, 166. 
Ear-drum, 162. 
Ears, 161-171. 
Eggs, 42-43. 
Edison, Thomas A., 135. 
Enema, 113. 
Epiglottis, 89. 
Esophagus, 15. 
Eustachian tube, 162, 165. 
Exercise, 206-218. 
Eyes, 148-159. 

F 
Fainting, 187. 
Farsightedness, 155. 
Fast eating, 21. 
Fat, 10. 
Fish, 44. 
Flour, 49. 
Food, 9-70. 
Food components, 9. 
Fruits, 55. 

G 
Gall, 16. 

Gall bladder, 15. 
Games, 209. 
Gastric glands, 15. 
Gastric juice, 15. 
Germs, 192-197. 
Glands, 14-17. 
Glasses, 157. 
Glottis, 89. 
Growth, 5. 

H 
Hair, 106, 180-182. 
Heart, 4, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122. 
House fly, 196-197. 



Intercostal muscles, 91. 
Intestinal fluid, 17. 
Intestinal glands, 17. 
Intestines, 15. 

K 
Kidneys, 109, 110. 



Large intestine, 15. 16. 

Larynx, 89, 173. 

Lime, 11. 

Liver, 4, 15, 16, 17. 

Luncheon, 67. 

Lungs, 4, 90, 91, 92, 97, 200. 

M 

Magnesia, 11. 
Massaging, 209. 
Mastication, 19-23. 
Meals, 30. 
Measles, 198. 
Meats, 43, 44. 
Medulla, 126, 127. 
Milk, 34-41. 
Mineral salts, 11. 
Mosquitoes, 197. 
Mucous membrane, 88. 
Mumps, 199. 
Mushrooms, 189. 

N 
Nails, 182-183. 
Nearsightedness, 155. 
Nerves, 125, 129. 
Nervous system, 125-137, 
Nose, 88. 

Nostrils, testing, 101. 
Nuts, 54. 

O 

Oatmeal, 48. 
Olive oil, 10, 68. 
Onions, 54. 
Orthodontia, 145. 
Oxygen, 73. 



Pacifier, 145. 
Pancreas, 15, 17. 



INDEX 



235 



Pancreatic juice, 17. 

Pasteurized milk, 36. 

Peas, 52. 

Perspiratory glands, 106, 107. 

Pharynx, 15, 88. 

Phosphorus, 11. 

Plasma, 116. 

Poison ivy, 189. 

Poisons, i89. 

Posture, 94-97, 104. 

Potatoes, 53. 

Proteid, 10. 

Protozoa, 192. 

Pulse, 121. 



R 



Rectum, 113. 
Retina, 150. 
Rhubarb, 53. 
Ribs, 91. 
Rice, 48. 
Rubbers, 179. 



S 



Salads, 68. 
Saliva, 16, 19. 
Salivary glands, 15, 16. 
Salt, 11. 
Scalds, 186. 
Scarlet fever, 198. 
Shoes, 179. 
Skeleton, 5, 6. 
Skimmed milk, 39. 
Skin, 106. 
Skull, 6, 127. 
Sleep, 130, 131. 
Sleeplessness, 113, 131. 
Small intestine, 15. 
Smallpox, 199. 
Soaking foods, 31. 
Soda, 11. 
Soft spot, 223. 
Soups, 30, 44. 
Spinach, 53. 

Spinal column, 128, 129. 
Spinal cord, 128, 129. 



Sputum, 193. 

Starch, 10. 

Sterilized milk, 36. 

Stings, 189. 

Stomach, 4, 15, 16, 24. 

Sugar, 11. 

Sweat, 107. 

Swimming, 187, 188, 209. 



Tea, 58, 59. 

Teeth, 138-147. 

Temperature, 80-81. 

Thorax, 4, 91. 

Toadstools, 189. 

Tobacco, effect on digestion, 32; on 

heart and circulation, 122; on 

nervous system, 132-135. 
Tonsils, 89. 
Trachea, 89. 
Trunk, 4. 
Tuberculosis, 200. 
Typhoid fever, 194. 

U 
Underclothing, 178. 
Ureter, 110. 
Urine, 110. 

V 

Vaccination, 199. 
Veins, 117. 
Ventilation, 77-85. 
Vermiform appendix, 15. 
Vocal cords, 173, 174. 
Voice, 172-177. . 

W 

Walking, 210, 224. 

Waste products of digestion, 25. 

Water, use to the body, 105-115: 

pure, 112; remedies, 112. 
Water drinking at meals, 21. 
Wheat, 48. 

Whooping cough, 199. 
Windpipe, 89. 



The Wonderful House that Jack Has 

A READER IN PRACTICAL 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

FOR USE IN SCHOOL AND HOME 

By COLUMBUS N. MILLARD 

Supervisor of Grammar Grades, Buffalo Public Schools 

This volume presents the leading facts about the care and building 
of the body in a way that will sufficiently interest and impress children 
to induce them to form those daily habits most likely to insure future 
health and usefulness. The author believes that the reading and dis- 
cussion of these facts in the fifth or sixth year of school, and again in 
perhaps the seventh or eighth, will thoroughly familiarize children with 
the use of food, air, and water in the growth and development of the 
body. It will also impress the fact that health and strength are not 
due to good luck, but to the wise use of these common things. 

Throughout the book much is made of the fact that more fun, better 
looks, and increased power to do usually accompany improved health : 
for all three results are powerful incentives with children. That mental 
attainments gained at the expense of health are often of little practical 
use is also emphasized. Technical terms and physiological facts are 
not given, unless a knowledge of them will more deeply impress the 
importance of establishing correct bodily habits. 

Training pupils to gain power in correct oral expression is one of the 
most difficult problems of the school. With this object, questions that 
will induce intelligent word study and stimulate full topical recitations 
are arranged at the end of the book. A glossary giving words which 
may be unfamiliar is also included. Both of these features will be of 
practical use to teachers and parents. The book is adequately illustrated. 

Cloth 12mo x + 359 pages 50 cents net 



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HOW WE TRAVEL 

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How We Travel is a simple presentation of the principal means of 
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HOW WE ARE FED 

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which touch the daily life of every member of society. The study deals 
with the commodities in constant use, and encompasses the whole world, 
but always with the Home as the basis of operations. 

HOW WE ARE CLOTHED 

x + 235 pages 
Similar in treatment and scope to How We are Fed. The chief 
materials and processes used in the production of clothing are treated 
in a simple and interesting manner, and by constant suggestion the 
pupil is taught to discover many things for himself. 

HOW WE ARE SHELTERED 

ix -j- 140 pages 
A study of the homes of men in various nations and of every degree 
of advancement in intelligence and civilization. There is also much of 
interest in regard to the building materials used in different countries, 
and the origin and preparation of many of the things which contribute 
to make the homes of mankind comfortable and happy. 



PUBLISHED BY 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



PIONEER HISTORY SERIES 

By CHARLES A. McMURRY 

Designed as a complete series of early history stories of the Eastern, Middle, 
and Western States, suitable as an introduction for children to American 
History. Illustrated and equipped with maps. 

Cloth i2mo 40 cents each 



Pioneers on Land and Sea 

The first of the three volumes deals with the chief ocean explorers, Columbus 
and Magellan, and with the pioneers of the Eastern States, Canada, and Mex- 
ico, such as Champlain, Smith, Hudson, De Leon, Cortes. These stories fur- 
nish the gateway through which the children of our Atlantic States should enter 
the fields of History. The attempt is to render these complete and interesting 
stories, making the experiences of pioneer life as graphic and real as possible. 

Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley 

Such men as La Salle, Boone, Robertson, George Rogers Clark, Lincoln, and 
Sevier supply a group of simple biographical stories which give the children a 
remarkably good introduction to History. Teachers are beginning to believe 
that children should begin with tales of their own home and of neighboring 
states, and then move outward from this center. For eastern children these 
stories form a very suitable continuation to " Pioneers on Land and Sea," and 
vice versa. 

Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West 

In some respects these western stories are more interesting and striking than 
those of the States farther east, because of their physical surroundings. Chil- 
dren of the Western or Mountain States should enjoy these stories first. The 
various exploring expeditions which opened up the routes across the plains 
and mountains are full of interesting and instructive incidents and of heroic 
enterprise. The chief figures in these stories are men of the most striking and 
admirable qualities, and the difficulties and dangers which they overcame 
place them among the heroes who will always attract and instruct American 
children. Incidentally, these narratives give the best of all introductions to 
western geography. They are largely made up from source materials fur- 
nished by the explorers themselves. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 

BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA 



Important Books on Education 



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One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



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